Unit 1. General Introduction to Professional Paper Writing1. Classification of Professional PapersA professional paper is a formal printed document in which professionals present their views andresearch findings on any deliberately chosen topic.1) Report PaperThe report paper summarizes and reports the findings of author(s) on a particular subject. The author(s) may not give his/their own opinion on the issue, nor evaluates the findings, but merely catalogs them ins sensible sequence.2)Research PaperA research paper can be intelligent, well-informed, interesting, and original in its conclusions. It draws its material from many sources. Its aim is to assemble facts and ideas and by studying then to draw new conclusions as to facts or interpretations, or to present the material in the light of a new interest.Research papers are or can be the most important and reliable sources for textbooks, monographs, and all other documentary works.3) Course PaperDifferent from the report paper and research paper, a course paper mainly refers to the paper written after a specific course is learned or at the end of the term. So its contents usually should be in line with the course requirements and under the instruction of the course instructor. Since this type of paper is always written and handed in at the end of the term , it is also called ―term paper‖.4) Thesis Paper (Dissertation论述)A thesis paper is usually written and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MA or MS (or Ph.D) in a specific discipline.Unlike a report paper, a thesis paper takes a definite stand on an issue. A thesis is a proposition or point of view that the writer or speaker is willing to argue against or defend. Writing a thesis paper requires the writer to exercise judgment, evaluate evidence, and construct a logical argument, whereas writing a report paper does not.2.General Characteristics of English Academic Writing StyleAcademic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions（扯开，离题）or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. Accordingly, academic writing is structured, formal and objective. Its language is often abstract and complex.There are eight main features that are often discussed to represent the style of academic writing: complex, formal, objective, explicit, accurate, hedged, responsible and making reference to other writers’work. It uses language precisely and accurately.（详见讲义）3. Ways of Preparing Professional Papers1) Searching for good ideas 2) Finding Topics 3）Considering Audience Purpose4) Moving from Brainstorming to Drafting 5) Editing and RefiningUnit 2. Title, Author/Affiliation and Keywords2.1. Titles2.1.1. General functionsA. Generalizing the TextA title should summarize the central idea of the paper concisely and correctly. By glancing at the title, the reader will immediately know, incorporating with the abstract, what is mainly dealt with in the paper.B. Attracting the ReaderIf a title is accurate, concise and distinct, it will attract readers a lot（draw particular attention among professionals,）and stimulate readers to read the whole text.C. Facilitating the RetrievalA title usually provides leads for the international information retrieval organizations to choose the appropriate keywords contained in it when they organize index and secondary documents.2.1.2 Linguistic FeaturesA. Using More Nouns, Noun Phrases and Gerunds（having the ability to sum up the whole text）B. Using Incomplete SentencesA title is just a label of appellation of the paper, reflecting the main idea of the content, A completedeclarative sentence usually makes a title containing determining implication. Meanwhile, it appears lacking brevity and clarity.2.1.3 Writing RequirementsA. ABC Principles for TitlesAccuracy means that a title can appropriately express and fit in the reality of the paper. Brevity asks the writer to summarize the necessary content with the most limited words. Clarity means a title should clearly reflect the distinguishing features of the paper.B. Being Brief and ConciseGenerally, a title is composed of no more than twenty words. If a title is too long, it will be difficult for readers to catch the meaning of the content and remember it. If the writer fails to state his idea clearly in a few words, he can use a subtitle（副题）. Too short a title, sometimes, may bring about confusion.C. Being SpecificIn preparing the title of a paper, a general and abstract title should be avoided.D. Avoiding Question TitlesA question title means a complete sentence in the question form. Such titles are usually not used in an academic paper (especially in natural sciences), because they always include some redundant（多余的）question words and marks What is worse, such a title creates inconvenience for information retrieval.E. Being UnifiedThe parallel parts of a title should be grammatically symmetrical. That is to say, nouns should be matched with nouns, gerunds with gerunds, etc. In general, nouns and gerunds should not be mixed in a given title.F. Being StandardIn general, nonstandard abbreviations and symbols and/or any terms or phraseology intelligible only to the specialist should be avoided, because the use of them could be very unfavorable to efficient information retrieval.2. 3. KeywordsKeywords are the identification for science and technology research papers to be retrieved as documents. Keywords, the same with abstract, are a part of a research paper, but not the part of the main body of the paper.2.2.1 General FunctionsA. Easiness of RetrievalB. Easiness of Highlighting2.2.2 Linguistic FeaturesA. NominalizationKeywords are usually used in the form of nouns, not verbs. For example, ―investigation‖ is used instead of ―investigate‖; ―educate‖ ought to be replaced by ―education.‖B. Limited NumberThe number of the keywords for a paper should be limited. Four to six keywords are the average. In general, there should be at least 2 and at most 8.C. Designated Choice2.2.3 Writing RequirementsA. Using Required TermsB. Placing in Right LocationThough keywords can be either above or below the abstract of a paper, in most cases, placed below the abstract.C. Spacing the KeywordsD. Adopting Standard Abbreviations, etc.（Standard abbreviations are preferred in the section of keywords. ）Unit 3. Abstract1. Definition of AbstractAn abstract is a brief and self-contained summary and an accurate representation of the contents of a document such as a research paper, a journal article, thesis, review, conferenceproceeding, and other academic documents. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospectivereaders the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work of their projects.2. When are abstracts used?You may write abstracts for various purposes. There are many places where abstracts are used. People write abstracts when:Submitting papers or articles to journalsApplying for research grantsCompleting the Ph.D dissertation or M.A. thesisWriting a proposal for conference paperIndexing bibliographically as library reference toolsWriting a book proposal.3. General Functions of an AbstractThe function of the abstract of a scientific paper is to provide an overview of the paper so that readers can understand the main ideas and identify the basic content of the work without reading the paper in its entirety. Since the abstract is the only part of larger work most readers will see, it should present the core of the paper also for the record in databases and secondary collections.There are two most important purposes or functions the abstract should serve: selection and indexing.3.1. SelectionThe primary purpose of an abstract is to facilitate a selection of documents. Abstract enable readers who may be interested in the larger work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it .Readers can grasp the main story and the essential points of the document without reading the whole text of the document. Abstracts thus, together with index, speed up the process of selection and save time.3.2. IndexingBesides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Many online databases use abstracts to index larger works.4. Classification of Abstracts (Types of Abstract)4.1 Indicative (or descriptive abstracts) abstractsThis type of abstract simply describes the kinds of information in a document, but it does not provide the information itself in detail. It does not provide any material contents of the documents, such as results or conclusions of the research. Indicative abstracts are usually used in review articles, conference reports, government reports, library bibliographies, etc. They are usually very short----no more than 150 words.4.2. Informative abstractsAn informative abstract summarizes as much as the essential elements of the document as possible, presenting and explaining all the main material contents in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes not only the information that can be found in an indicative abstract (purpose, scope, and methods), but also the important findings and conclusions of the research.The majority of abstracts are informative.4.3. Indicative / informative abstracts (综合性)It presents a summary of the essential arguments and findings of the original, whilst those aspects of the document that is of minor significance are treated indicatively.4.4. Author abstracts 4.5. Slanted abstract 4.6. Telegraphic abstract4.7 Mini-abstractsA mini-abstract is just an extension of the title, brief and easy to write.4.8 Mission-oriented abstract 4.9 Finding-oriented abstractA finding-oriented abstract is also similar to a slanted abstract. However, their differences lie in the fact that the finding-oriented abstract focuses more on the investigation and results of the experiment, whereas the slanted abstract caters more for the special interest of a particular group of readers.4.10 Highlight abstractThe purpose of this kind of abstract is to hook the reader’s attention on one particular article with some highlight of the work. A hight abstract does not appear alone elsewhere. It is always placed before the article and has to go together with the article.5. Basic Components of the abstract:Background: State briefly the topic and scope of the studyPurpose /Objective/ Aim: Define the research questions to be addressed（What I want to do?）Approach/Procedures /Methods/Design (How I did it?): Provide an overview of the research design, methods of data collection, and analysis.Results / Findings: Summarize the key findings in the course of workConclusions/Implications:State the key conclusions and practical implications based the findings. (What results did I get and what conclusions can I draw?).Originality (What is new and original in this paper).6. “5 Steps” for Abstract Writing6.1 Underlining Key Words and Sentences6.2 Listing Essential Points of the Paper6.3Boiling down Each Section to a Sentence or Two6.4Drafting the Abstract6.5 Checking the Final Draft2. ―5A Strategy‖Q1: What is the general knowledge of your topic in the academic field?Q2: What research topic is the paper to focus on?Q3: What method or material do you use to support your main point of view?Q4: What conclusion will you draw?Q5: What is the main contribution of the paper?Abstract = Al + A2 + A3 + A4 + A57. Likely Mistakes/Common Errors7.1 Mixed Writing StyleThis type of writing, which is characterized by using written language, is different from writings in the colloquial style.7.2 Over-simplified StatementsThough short and concise, an abstract should not be too simple. (too general and global)7.3 Monotonous(adj. 单调的，无抑扬顿挫的；无变化的) ExpressionIn writing an abstract, variety in the form is desired: with passive and active voices, changing of verbs and phrases, and others. Lack of variety may lead to monotonous expression.(above abstract are in passive form. The verb ―give‖ even appears twice in such a short passage. the reader may get misled by the author’s writing skills, no matter how professional t he subject matter is.),(no passive voice can be found at all)7.4 Incomplete Contents(Glancing at the above abstract, we may have an impression on it as follows:First, in accordance with the requirements of abstract writing, the content of an abstract should be integrated or unified. But this abstract does not inform the readers of any result of the research.Second, in terms of structure, the topic sentence of the abstract seems rather indistinctive, which creates difficulty for the reader to decide what the main objective of the paper is.Third, the verb forms and sentence patterns used in it seem to be monotonous. All the four sentences in the abstract are in passive form.Finally, some expressions in the abstract remain to be improved grammatically.7.5 Displacement of InformationThe above abstract can be regarded as a poor version. The whole abstract consists of five sentences, four of which are used to present merely background information and general professional knowledge. Thus the abstract does not provide any essential information or data that should be provided in an abstract. Only the last sentence seems meaningful for an abstract.Unit 4. Introduction1. General Functions of Introduction1.1 Introducing the SubjectWhen retrieving information, a reader always first skims the title, the abstract and the introduction of a paper to determine whether or not the document is worth reading.1.2 Limiting the Research ScopeOnly when an introduction clearly defines the limits of the research scope can readers retrieve the information efficiently provided that the subject is introduced correctly.1.3 Stating the General PurposeStating the general purpose is aimed at telling the reader why to where to start or where to guide.1.4 Showing the Writing Arrangement2. Structural Features of Introduction2.1 Starting with the Research BackgroundThe research background is usually given in the section of introduction accompanied by the recent development in this field. ―What have been done?‖ The best way to presen t this information depends on what the reader already knows. It may or may not be necessary to include historical background, definition of certain terms, data.( The previous work on... has indicated that... Over the past several decades.... )2.2 Transiting to the Existing ProblemAuthors usually transit to the main problems to be discussed or weak points remaining in the previous work to be further studied and/or improved. ―What have not been done?‖ The existing problems or weak points of such nature may be something that has not yet been found before, the methods that have not been adopted so far, materials that have not yet been discovered in the past, and/or the factors that were previously ignored, and so on.●Great progress has been made in this field, but (however, nevertheless, etc.)...● A part of the explanation could lie in... However ....2.3 Focusing on the Present ResearchOn the basis of reviewing the previous research, especially unfolding or displaying the weak points of the previous work to be overcome or existing problems to be solved, the author may gradually and naturally turn the reader’s attention to the present research, by stating his primary research objectives, novel ideas, advanced methods, new materials, fresh factors, etc. That is to answer the question: ―What I am going to do?‖●In this paper .... is investigated (studied, discussed, presented, etc.)●On the basis of existing literature data, we carried out studies in an effort to...Unit Five Literature Review1. Integration and Case Building1.1 the skills to do a thorough reviewA variety of skills and knowledge are required to do a thorough review. First, you need knowledge about the structure and function of an integrative review. Next, critical thinking skills are required to not only simply review literature but also understand and discuss the literature. Finally, integrative writing skills are required to establish a cogent rationale to build a case for the importance of your unique study that builds on the previous literature in a logical way.1.2 the definition of literature reviewReview articles are critical evaluations of material that has already been published. By organizing, integrating, and evaluating previously published material, the author of a review article considers the progress of current research toward clarifying a problem. In a sense, a review article is tutorial in that the author (a) defines and clarifies the problem; (b) summarizes previous investigations in order to inform the reader of the state of current research; (c) identifies relations, contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the literature; and (d) suggests the next step or steps in solving the problem.2. Structural Elements In Writing A Literature ReviewA literature-review chapter requires a number of structural elements, which help guide thereader from one sentence and paragraph to the next in a logical and seamless fashion. The chapter starts with an introductory paragraph that focuses the reader on the topic that will be covered by the review. A road map should be included as an ―advanced organizer‖ of what will be included in the chapter as a whole. The chapter should be divided into sections and subsections, each (depending on its level of complexity) having its own mini-road maps to further guide the reader. Each paragraph should begin with a clear and explicit topic sentence that informs the readers what will comprise that particular paragraph. Each major section should close with a transition that leads the reader into the next topic that will be covered in the review. Finally a summary and concluding section should bring the review together at the end.3. The Funnel(n. 漏斗；烟囱vt. 通过漏斗或烟囱等；使成漏斗形)A literature review for a thesis or dissertation should also be constructed in the shape of a funnel--starting very broadly by introducing the topic; then moving into the focus of the review; continually narrowing the focus to a few selected variables and, toward the end, developing a rationale for your hypotheses; followed by the hypotheses themselves.4. Introduction and Focus of the Topic5. Road MapsA very clear structure of what is to come in the review is required to orient the reader. Although this may seem obvious to you, for most readers this will be their first exposure to your review. In essence, explain to readers what you are going to discuss in the paper. Road maps, or overview statements, do just that; a road map presents a schema for the reader, a way of communicating what information will follow, and even how the rest of the paper is structured or divided into sections. A road map should be part of the introduction of your literature review. 6. Sections and Subsections: Mini-Road MapsTypically, the review paper is lengthy and contains a great deal of information. The organization of the paper and how different aspects of the literature are related to each other are generally clear to the author but often not as clear to readers.7. Explicit Topic SentencesThe first line of each paragraph should be a clear, concise topic sentence that introduces the reader to the topic of the paragraph and what is to follow in that paragraph. A reader looking only at the topic sentences of your review should get a very good picture of what your review is about.8. TransitionsWell-worded transitions help the reader get from the last point to the subsequent point.9. Summary and ConclusionsThe summary provides the concluding remarks that capture the essential parts of what you want the reader to take away from the section. Common practice is to tell the reader what you are going to do (i.e., provide road maps), and tell them what you did (i.e., provide a good summary). Although the summary may seem very obvious to you, and even unnecessary, a good summary is very informative to readers, especially those who are less familiar with this topic than you are. 10.Describing,Analyzing and Synthesizing the LiteraturePerhaps the easiest way to write a review paper is to simply report what each study examined and what was found.Unit 6. Textual Development （1）I. Types of WritingWith the characteristics of writing, there are four kinds of writing: narrations(n. 叙述，故事), descriptions, expositions(n. 博览会；阐述；展览会) and argumentations(n. 论证；争论；辩论). Briefly, narrations are the articles that tell stories, giving accounts of events, e.g. the time, place, hero, what has happened and the outcomes,etc.; descriptions are articles that give picturesof something, e.g. a scenery, a psychological state.expositions are articles that explain what is difficult to understand, e.g. functions of machines, processes of carrying out plans, etc. argumentations are articles that argue, reason, prove, infer or persuade, etc.In most cases, academic articles are descriptions and arguments though authors may make use of some other modes of writing.II. Research descriptionThere are two basic approaches to description: objective and subjective.1. Objective DescriptionIn most cases, when a professional author writes his research papers, he has to take an objective approach instead of a subjective one, because in his professional research, he has to focus on the object he is portraying(vt. 描绘；扮演) rather thanon his personal action to it. All the related situations require a precise description of the conditions or processes his research involves.2.Subjective DescriptionIn contrast to objective description is subjective.which shows the author’s impression of or responses to what they see. In such descriptions, the author does not only want to describe the object itself but also express directly or indirectly his impressions or opinions of what he is describing. And therefore, as a rule, a subjective or impressionist description aims not only at conveying the actual record of sights and sounds, but also the author’s attitudes and bias on what he is describing.3. General Requirements for Research Description(1)Presenting a picture of the objectA research description is intended to present a picture of the appearance of an object or the details or process of an investigation.(2) Illustrating the object in artificial languageA research description is often accompanied by one or more figures, graphs, pictures or tables.(3) Making necessary comparisonIt is often possible to make the description clearer by means of comparing an object or a process, say, an experiment, with something that the reader is familiar with.(4) Sizing the object speciallyIn describing size, an experienced professional writer usually tries to avoid such general words as ―large‖, ―small‖ or ―quite big‖. Instead, he prefers to say 3 cm2 squared, or 10 meters’ high. (5) Locating the object correctlyThe positions of various parts of an object or a place must be indicated with care unless the figure or picture itself already shows the position of each part clearly.(6) Generalizing/systematizing the observation carefullyA research description has also to indicate how the new observations and ideas bing advanced may require a change--- by further generalization or systematization --- in the conceptual strucutre of a given scientific field.III. Common Logic Patterns in English ArgumentationLogic patterns are modes to develop ideas and to conclude conclusions. Generally speaking, there are 9 commonly used logic patterns of arguments. In academic writing: direct statement, induction(n. 感应；归纳法), deduction(n. 扣除，推论) analogy(n.类推), illustration（n. 说明；插图；例证）, quotation, comparison, disproof（n. 反证；反驳）, and cause and effect.AnalogyAnalogy is the logic pattern by which the author develops his ideas by drawing similarities between parallel cases (putting two cases together, finding one point on which two things are similar and reasoning other points on which two things are similar). Usually the author takes a case that is familiar to readers (audience) and has already been accepted to infer several conclusions about a case that is not familiar to them or difficult for them to understand.Analogy is very common in arguments and very convincing.（推论习题）No, she was frustrated and deeply unhappy. 'I came for justice,' she complained,'but the magistrate never let me explain what happened.' In other words, although she liked theoutcome, she didn't like the process that had created it.Unit 7 Textual Development1.Typical Features of Papers of Experimental NatureCompared with papers of theoretical nature, papers of experimental nature, as the name implies, mainly center around experiments, investigations or analyses of their results. To this end, the most important section of this paper is that of experimental description. The functions of experiment description are to (1) convince readers—experimental result should be reliable and convincing; (2) benefit reader--- the introduction of experimental and inspiration, and should facilitate further deliberations and research for the readers; and (3) allow readers to duplicate the experiment – the process and method of experiment should have reproducibility, and the described experiment should be duplicated by same others under the conditions.The description of an experiment usually includes the experimental process undertaken,technology involved, materials used, equipment introduced, conditions provided, etc.2.Process Undertaken in the Experiment1)Starting with a Process IntroductionThe introduction should contain necessary comments on the process as a whole.2)Steps Taken to Complete the ExperimentSteps of an investigation or an experiment should be described or treated as a whole so as to give the readers an integrated or a general impression.3) Detailed Approaches4) Summing-up or Conclusive Ideas of the ProcessThe explanation of or introduction to a process may or may not call for a conclusion or a summary. The suitable kinds of conclusion materials might be a summary of what has preceded, or information about the significance or importance of the process.3.Technology Involved in the Experiment4.Materials Used in the Experiment5.Equipment Introduced in the Experiment6. Conditions Provided in the ExperimentSpecial Attention:Let us analyze the length, structure and variety of the opening sentence.(P28习题)Sentence length:(1) short, 9w; (2) medium, 12 w; (3) medium, 11 w;(4) short, 9; (5) medium, 14 w; (6) medium, 14 w;(7) medium, 13 w; (8) medium, 10 w; (9) medium, 10 w;Variety of sentence structure:(1)Simple sentence; (2) compound sentence; (3) Simple sentence;(4) Simple sentence; (5) Simple sentence; (6) subordinate sentence;(7) Simple sentence; (8) Simple sentence; (9) Simple sentence;Variety of sentence opining:(1) n. phrase (computerized systems)(2) n. phrase (opining mode)(3) n. phrase (conventional batch processing)(4) n. phrase (the exception)(5) n. phrase (batch processing)(6) n. phrase (remote batch processing)(7) pron. (it)(8) adv. (Unfortunately)(9) pron. (it)From the above analysis, it can be seen that an excessive number of sentences of medium length and simple sentences cause monotony and prime style. True, each of them may be clear, but the relationship consistency of the ideas to be expressed in the individual sentences is often hard to perceive. And the reader has to join his own imagination with the ideas that the author wants to convey thus, it does not necessarily result in clearness. Moreover, it necessitates the repetition of words and destroys conciseness, as will be shown later.Unit 8. Result, Discussion and Conclusion1. Section of Results1) General Functions and Contents of ResultsThe value of a research lies in the value of its final results and the author’s interpretation of the results. If the preceding sections of a paper (Introduction, Investigations, Experiments, Calculations, etc.) are designed to explain how the author obtains the results, and the following sections of the paper (Analysis, Discussion, Summary or Conclusion, etc.) are to tell what the results should mean. Then, in the section of results, the author(s) should bring about a solid foundation on which the whole paper rests, by boiling down all the facts and data he has gained.2) Writing Requirements for ResultsIn the section of result, the following two points should be kept in mind.First, any data shown in this section must be meaningful.Second, the presentation of results should be short without verbiage] and be of crystal clarity.。