市场竞争优势的来源和演变外文原文Competitive Advantage and its Sources in an EvolvingMarketApostolos D. ZaridisDepartment of Business Administration, Aegean University, Chios, GreeceAbstract. In a continuously altered and evolving Market, as is the food manufacturing market, the main and long-lastingobjective of firm that is the imization of its wealth and consequently the continuous remaining in profit regions,appears that it is possible to be achieved via the obtainment and maintenance of diachronically long-term competitiveadvantage, which it will render the firm unique or leader force in a inexorable competition that is continuously extendedin a globalized market. Various definitions and different regards are developed in regard to the competitive advantageand the way with which a frnn it is possible, acquiring it, to star in the market in which it is activated. As result ofsustainable competitive advantage in a frnn comes the above theaverage performance. Abundance of resources andcompetences that are proposed as sources of competitive advantage in the resource-based view literature exists, whilethey are added continuously new based on empiric studies. In any case, it appears to suffer hierarchy of sources ofcompetitive advantage, with regard to sustainability of theseKeywords: Business and Management, Competitive Advantage, Food Manufacturing smesPACS: 89.65.GhINTRODUCTIONIn a continuously altered and evolving environment, as is current, the main and long-lasting objective of firmthat is the imization of its wealth and consequently the continuous remaining in profit regions, appears that it ispossible to be achieved via the obtainment and maintenance of diachronically long-term competitive advantage,which it will render the firm unique or leader force in a inexorable competition that is continuously extended in aglobalized market. Various definitions and different regards have been developed in regard to the competitiveadvantage and the way with which a firm it is possible, acquiring it, to star in the market in which it is activatedDEFINITIONS According to Michael Porter [1], competitive advantage for a firm isthe result of complete comprehension of itsexternal and internal environment. After it comprehends the market which it is activated in, its competitors, thewider exterior environment but also its strengths and weaknesses, it is possible later to discover its own unique corecompetencies and to be supported in one of the three types of competitive strategies - generic strategy - that is to say the leadership of cost, the strategy of differentiation and the strategy of focusSame author[2] expresses his conviction that the competitive advantage springs from the value that a firm is capable to offer in its customer, which surpasses the cost of value creation from the firm. Value is that the customersthey are wilhng to pay, while the excess value springs always or from the offer of lower prices for equivalent profitin relation with the competition or from the offer of unique profit for the consumer that exceeds the higher price ofoffer. Two basic types of competitive advantage exist. The leadership of cost and the differentiation. These emanatefrom capability of firm to deal better from competition with five forcesThe message M. Treacy and F. Wiersema [3] dispatch, is that no firm cannot achieve trying to be "everything ineveryone". On the contrary, it is necessary to discover a unique valuethat it is possible to bring in a concretemarket. If a firm seeks the achievement and maintenance of sovereign role in a market, it should secure its place inthis and decide the type of value that wants to offer in its customers. They suggest firm to discover, adopt andCPU 48, Vol. 2, Computational Methock in Science and Engineering, Advances in Computational Scienceedited by T. E. Simos and G. Maroulis2009 American Institute of Physics 978-0-7354-0685-8/09/$25.00917 develop the following three essential values-ideas. First, "the Value of proposition" that contains its commitmentwith regard to what firm will distribute or offer in the consumers price, quality, appearance, collection, etc. Second"the Value driven operating model" that is the combination of production process, its administrative system and theculture firm has so that firm will offer its own value-proposal. Finally, "the value discipline" that is related in three very desirable ways with which firms can combine two previous values in order to become leaders in the market inwhich they are activated, offering unique value in their customers. In the last one belongs[4] "operationalexcellence", that is capability of firm to offer the product in thebetter price with the minimal possible nuisance forconsumer, "product leadership", that is to say the capability of firm to offer the better possible product in the bettertime and "customer intimacy" means that firm offers in its customers a product or a service that serves preciselytheir needs. According to Treacy and Wiersema, a firm that wants to become leader in a market should follow onlyone from above suggested ways. Each one of them is related with different consumer groups with different values asfor the consumption of products. These three ways, as they were described above, arise from products that areproduced and different values of consumers that are to satisfy, make proportional with what Porter names genericstrategy. Contrary to the previous authors, James Moore [5] imports notions of collaboration and alhance asimportant for the predominance and the conquest of top in the market. Sometimes in certain given time moments,perhaps collaborative or alhed forms, contrary to the classic competition, constitute the solution in the complexenvironment that firms exist and are developed. In current economic environment, innovation is the one that leads tothe top of market, while achieved firm is the one that develops rapidand effectivelyResource - based theory [6] is the main theory of competitive advantage [9]. All types of resource - based view comprehend continuous superior performance as phenomenon relative with firm that emanates from resources andcapabilities that produce economic rents, because of the value, the lack, the weakness of perfect imitation and rentappropriation. Resource - based view has attracted important empiric studiesA firm acquires competitive advantage creating capabilities that are precious, rare, inimitable or non-substitutable [7]. The cornerstones of competitive advantage, according to Peteraf [8], are: heterogeneity of resources that creates monopoly or Ricardian rents a posteriori hmits in the competition that protect rents from permanent competition, since they maintain heterogeneity of resources and consequently rents imperfect mobility of production factors that ensures that precious factors remain in the firm, as that rentsare shared inside this ex ante limits to competition that prevent costs from offsetting rents, since they maintain costs of strategy implementation in low levelIn conclusion, four terms that are mentioned above should be satisfied in order that a firm has sustainable aboveaverage economic rentsFirms acquire viable competitive advantages [9]with strategies implementation that exploit their internal forces, neutralizing exterior threats and avoiding internal weaknesses, focusing mainly in the analysis of opportunities andthreats of firm in its competitive environment. Four empiric indicators of firm resources potential to createsustainable competitive advantage are proposed: value, rarity, inimitability and substitutability. In this frame, a firm resource in order to have potential of creating competitive advantage, should be: precious, under significance that it exploits opportunities and/or it neutralizes threats in firm's environment rare, between current and potential in the future firm's competition imperfect imitable, or via the unique historical terms, or via the causal ambiguity or the social complexity without strategic equivalent substitutesIn any case, sustainable competitive advantage[2] is considered as basis of above average performance of firm inthe long run. Without this does not exist permanent rents. Sustainabihty of competitive advantage depends fromthree factors[IO]: specific source of advantage possessed by a firm, number of different sources possessed by it andalso continuous improvement and upgrade of the sources or notSOURCES OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGEAs we realize from above, very important factor for the maintenanceof a firm in the top of market is preservationof competitive advantage, via the obtainment of some source of competitive advantageAccording to Resource - based theory, in-depth time competitiveness of firm depends from resources possessed by it that differentiate it from its competitors and are durable and difficult to imitate and substitute. Variousdefinitions and classifications of resources have been proposed: 918classification of resources in tangible, such as human, economic or physical resources and intangible, asreputation, know-how orpatents[ll], [12] division into assets, something that a firm possesses eg. brand name and skills, that is something that afirm is capable to do eg. advertising. Hall 1992 mentions intangible resources as assets andcompetencies: assets are divided into legal assets eg. contracts, hcenses and non-legal assets egsuppliers networks, reputation and competencies into know-how and organizational culture disaggregation of resources in homogeneous categories, such as physical resources, financial resources,human resources, technological resources, organizational resources, etc. [14] use of significances of competence and capability, considering these as part of resources and as potentialof firm to manage them and consequently obtain a competitive advantage[14, 15]Nevertheless, resource - based theory does not examine every resource possessed by a firm but focuses more orless on critical or strategic resources, which are those that constitute the basis of firm's sustainable competitiveadvantage. Several authors have proposed enough tests in order to decide on such resourcesIn decade of '90s, there was a change over from attention drawn to industry to the results - observations related closely with firm, in regard to sources of sustainable competitive advantage[16]. While it is supported[8] thatcompetitive advantage emanates from organization's own capabilities organizational capabilities. In same theory itis reported [17] that 'competitive advantage and performance results are a consequence of firm-specific resourcesand capabilities' and that the core of the resource-based view[I7] is that 'firms differ in fundamental ways as eachhas its own 'bundle' of resources'. 'The source of competitive advantage within a firm is often multifactorial' andconsequently it cannot be attributed exclusively to a resource but the interaction of these resources leads tocompetitive advantageSome of the sources of competitive advantage mentioned by international literature will be reported here, withoutthese to constitute unique or most important ones, but they show the breadth and the spectrum of resources orcapabilities that it is likely to lead certain firms to the competitive advantage inside specific markets which they are activated inBarney I99I reports that it has been proposed by others that strategic planning process, information processing systems and positive firm reputations are sources of sustained competitive advantage. It was reahzed that all threeresources are capable to generate sustainable competitive advantage under certain conditions. Finally, it is proposedthat the role of managers in comprehension and description of resources possessed by a firm is critical in theobtainment of sustainable competitive advantage. Barney 1986 supports that a firm can acquire expectedadvantages by analyzing information from assets already possessed. Provided that its assets are imperfectly mobile,inimitable and non-substitutable, other firms will not be in place they imitate its strategySoftware tools development[I9] in order to make easier import of products process, direct costs management, production of current work and process and development of planning and control systems constitute sources ofcompetitive advantage. Also, it is proved that a total qualitativeprogram that includes a combination of techniquescan be successful in achievement of essential competitive advantages for a successful manufacturing firmMoreover, exterior factors - exterior general environment of firm - it is possible they mainly constitute source ofcompetitive advantage, concerning firms that are activated in the same market, but are emanated from othercountries, make very usual in the current internationalized markets. The example of states' or EuropeanCommunity's programs of aid for research, technology and education of personnel is characteristic. Technologicaland training programs implementation [20] in E.U. has particular importance from the point of view of firms'competitiveness. The competitiveness of industrialized states of Western Europe was small in the decade of '70sagainst corresponding in Japan and USA. A strategy was apphed in E.C. according to which the sustainabledevelopment of technology, the relative with this personnel training and the research are basic factors ofcompetitiveness. Keeping in mind this, EU began to accomphsh programs of training and research, the aim of whichwas to increase firms' competitiveness, of those that developactivities in the region of EU and in this way isstrengthened EU against its competitors, leading to a European competitive advantage. Even if according to Porter,firms and not nations rival in international markets. The selected strategy of EU, surely important, that is thedevelopment of research, technology and training, didn't produce the desirable result. According to Porter's research[10], competitiveness of nations and countries can be founded only in competitive firms and not in the opinions ofpolitical decisionsResearchers agree with regard to the appearance of knowledge as critical resource, as Pillania[2I] reportsLeverage of knowledge, the basic resource of economy of knowledge, is the better way to a sustained competitiveadvantage. In the beginning, the inquiring focus and the attention in leverage of knowledge was seated in the bigfirms. Small and medium-sized firms SMEs are basic contributors in the world economy, trade and employment919 Because of several reasons, included that of limited resources, the leverage of knowledge is critical for the SMEs,still more than big firms' corresponding. Also personnel's training is a strategic variable that can lead a firm tocompetitive advantageThe basis of competitive advantage has beenshifted from static efficiencies to the rhythm of dynamic improvement. They are not inputs or scale that firm possesses today, but its capability to innovate perpetually andupgrade its skills and technology - at a big part intangible assets - in the competition. With this form of competition,the role of geographic location changes deeply. Firms function worldwide in the supply of inputs and the access inthe markets. The competitive advantage however, emanates from the process of innovation that is located in the'domestic base' of firm or the place of its strategic administrative team, or research activities or complex productionfor a particular hue of productsThe predominance of clusters reveals important ideas for the micro-economy of competition and the role of location in the competitive advantage. Clusters represent a new way of thought for national and local economies andthey require new roles for firms, governments and other organizations to the direction for enhancement ofcompetitiveness. Achieved firms have recognized [25] that technology constitutes tool, via which they can acquirecompetitive advantageInnovation and development of new products in food sector constitute for the sector's SMEs efficient ways for obtaining advantage in the market [26]. Avermaete et al. [26] discussfor the need of food sector SMEs to importcontinuously new products in the market, develop new processes, proceed in changes in their organisationalstructure and in opening in new markets. Development of new products that cover needs of market, and technologythat is incorporated in product and its production process is a challenge for food sector manufacturing firmsAlso SMEs, that they develop strategic collaborations, are more likely to enlarge, innovate and activate ininternational markets than corresponding that adopt the 'traditional - solitary' approach [27]Finally, Porter [10] argues that it suffers hierarchy of sources of competitive advantage, with regard to sustainability. Thus, they exist "low order" advantages, that they are easy to be imitated - such as low working cost,cheap raw material - and "higher order" advantages, which last in time, require more capabilities and skills for theirachievement and come as result of accumulated investments - such as suitable technological process, productdifferentiation that is based on unique products or services and reputation of brand name because of increaseddiachronically promotion marketing. The advantages of second category are not only more sustainable, but alsoare connected with higher productivityREFERENCES1. Porter, M. E. 1980. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for analyzingIndustries and Competitors, New York: The FreePress2. Porter, M. E. 1985. Competitive Advantage. Creating andSustaining Superior Performance, New York: The Free Press3. Treacy, M.and Wiersema, F. 1995. The Discipline of Market Leaders, Harper Co。