英语语言学一、名词解释第一课l.Synchronic 共时性：Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “poinL in timeA A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind・2>Langue 语言：The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community・3>Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.^Arbitrariness 任意性：One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme 音位：Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning・ The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2<AlIophone 音位变体：The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3<Minimal pair 最小对立体：When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segmentwhich occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair第三课LMorphology 形态学：Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes 派生词素：Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class ofwords are called…3Jnflectional morphemes 曲折词素：Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1 .Syntax 语法句法：A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences・2.Syntactic categories 句法范畴：Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes,called syntactic categories・3>Deep structure 深层结构：Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties,is called deep structure or D・ structure・4.Surface structure 表层结构：Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课LReference 指称：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienee.2.Homonymy 同音异义：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both・3・Hyponymy 上下义关系：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word・第六课l.Pragmatics 语用学：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2eUtterance 话语：a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3<Utterance meaning 话语意义：Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4Jllocutionary act 言夕卜行为：An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker^ intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1 • What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication .It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology: It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language・Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences・Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system・ It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language・Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sou nd.3.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1)Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2)Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understandingnovel messages.3)Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4)Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5)Cultural transmission第二课1.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph]9a phonetician or a philologist? Why?语咅学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么？Phonetics 一description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology ——description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meani ng.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning ・2.What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value ・The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/1/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/ Allophones—actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem tyDe: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem tyDe: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or business activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: unmeaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach or language unhappy: nothappy2)prefix: antimeaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medically induced abortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re・meaning:_once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbs examples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1.What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms --- synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2.Explain with examples “homonymy”，“polysemy”，and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e Mdifferent words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they arehomophones・ When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs・ When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms・ The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj ./fast v・Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning・ This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5・ orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6. part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word・ The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process・In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics- However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics・2.What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2)directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3)commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4)expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5)declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting,requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class・Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typicalones.The illocutionaiy point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating・The last class "declarations^ has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality・3・ What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged・To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1)The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange)・②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required・(2)The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence・(3)The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4)The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity・③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.。