What is a summary?A summary is a short piece of writing that gives the main facts or ideas of a story or article,etc. The qualities of a good summary?It should be objective,that is,the writer does not include any ideas of his/her own. It should be complete ,that is,the writer does not leave out important facts or ideas.It should be balanced,in other words,the writer gives equal attention to each main idea.The goal of a summary?It is to give readers an objective,complete,accurate and balanced view ofsomething(an article,a story ,a novel,a play,etc)Paragraph unityA unified paragraph contains only sentences that explain or support the general statement made in the topic sentence.Any sentence that does not relate to (=is not connected in some way)the main idea will not develop it.How to achieve paragraph unity?Begin with a discussable point and express it in a topic sentence.Stick to this single point throughout,that is,all other sentence should be aboutthis point.Prove or develop the point;don 't merely repeat it.Link your sentence to make your ideas easy to follow.How to outline (=to give the main facts about something) a story?Divide the story into smaller parts. Summarize each part in one sentence.Number your sentence summaries to make them an outline of the story.What is a narrative paragraph?A narrative paragraph is one that briefly describes an incident or a personal experience. Requirements that a good narrative paragraph should meet?Though its length is limited,it is complete,that is,it has a beginning,middle and end.It includes as little conversation as possible.Its sentences are connected by suitable linking words or expressions.Here are some common time linking words/expressions.Afterward later when shortly afterward soon while the next day/night then Paragraph coherence(Coherence is connection )A coherent paragraph is one in which every sentence after the first is connected to the one before it,to the topic sentence ,or to both ,and readers can readily follow the writer 's train of thought(= a related series of thoughts)An incoherence paragraph is one in which the sentences are badly connected or not connected at all,and the readers are likely to lose their way.How to achieve paragraph coherence?Arrange sentence in a clear order.Use correct pronounsUse correct linking words and expressions.What is exposition?Exposition is explanatory writing.Its purpose is to explain or clarify a point. Patterns of expositionExemplificationProcess analysis Cause-Effect analysis Comparison and contrast Classification Definition Analogy What is exemplification?Exemplification is a method of supporting a thesis statement with a series of specific examples or sometimes,with a single extended example.It is one of the most common and most useful means of developing a paragraph or an essay.What is an essay?An essay is a related group of paragraphs written for some purpose.Types of essaysEssays can be classified into types,or modes,according to their purposes. Narrative essays relate a sequence of events,whether factual or not.Descriptive essays create a word picture of a scene,a person,or an object.Expositive essays explain--to inform,instruct,clarify,illustrate,or define. Argumentative essays state an opinion and defend it logically.Basic structure of an expositive essayAn expositive essay has three parts: A beginning called the introduction. A middle called the body.An end called the conclusion.Elements of the expositive essay OutliningThesis statementTitleTransitionWhat is an outline?An outline is a method of organizing materials in logical order.It is a list that shows the main ideas and the structure of something you are planning to write.In other words,it is a plan for a piece of writing.Constructing an outline makes the writing of your essay easier.Types of outline1.Topic outline,which uses only key words and phrases.2.Sentence outline,which uses complete sentence.Format(the arrangement ,design,or organization of something)A topic outline looks like this:Thesis:In my first year at college,I learned to spend my money wisely.What is process analysis?A process analysis is a step-by-step explanation of how to do something,or how something works/done or made,or something happened.What is process analysis used for?1.To give directions to people who want or need to perform the process.(giving instructions )2.To give information to those who want to understand the process but may not actually performit.(giving information)3.To explain how something happened.(giving the history) What are the major typesof process analysis?1.Directive process analysis which is aimed at explaining how to do or make something.rmative process analysis which is aimed at explaining how something is done/works or how something took place/happened.What is comparison/contrast?Comparison/contrast is a method of developing a paragraph or an parison shows similarity while contrast shows difference.The word comparison is sometimes used to mean both comparison and contrast.What is comparison/contrast used for?1.To clarify something unknown or not well understood.2.To lead a new way of viewing something familiar.3.To bring one or both of the subjects into sharper focus.4.To show that one subject is better than the other. What is classification? Classification is the method of grouping objects,people,or ideas systematically.Itis one of the most useful organizational strategies in writing.What is classification used for?1.To organize and perceive the world around us.2.To present a mass of material by means of some orderly system.3.To deal with complex or abstract topics by breaking a broad subject intosmaller,neatly sorted categories.What is definition?1.Definition is the explanation of the meaning of a word or concept.2.Definition is also a method of developing an essay.What is analogy?Analogy is an extended comparison based on the similar features of two things of different classes,one familiar one easily understood,the otherunfamiliar ,abstract,or complicated.It is an important method of exposition.What are transition?Transition,also called ”transitional devices ”,are words,phrases,and even whole sentences that link sentence to one another.What is a journal?A journal is a record of experiences,ideas,or reflections kept regularly for private use.It is something “for you eye only ”.So you can write from your heart and letideas and feelings flow freely.Journal writing is a form of free-writing,which involves writing whatever comes to your mind about what happens around you and what you observe and think about. Argumentation and persuasion defined.Argumentation-persuasion is the type of writing in which writers try to encourage readers to accept their point of view on a controversial issue.In argumentation ,writers use objectives,logical reasoning,facts,and hard evidence to demonstrate the soundness of a position.Their purpose is to encourage readers to accept their point of view.In persuasion,writers use emotional language and dramatic appeals to readers' concerns,beliefs and values,often in the hope of encouraging then to take a specific action,besides,encouraging acceptance of an opinion.Argumentation and persuasion are frequently used together in an essay.Also,the two terms are often used interchangeably.The claim definedClaims,or propositions,represent answers to what you are trying to prove in an argumentative essay.Although they are the conclusions of your arguments,they often appear as these statements. Abstract&concrete wordsConcrete words identify persons and things that can be perceived by the senses--seen,heard,tasted,felt,smelled,e.g.table,boy,rose,etc.Abstract words denote qualities,concepts,relationships,acts,conditions,ideas that we can 't perceive directly through our five senses,e.g.honesty,friendship,life,etc. Most words are neither wholly abstract nor concrete.They are between the two extremes,e.g.exercise,rest,answer,etc.General&specific wordsSpecific words identify individual items in a group,e.g.BuickGeneral words relate to categories,an overall group,e.g.carMost words are neither wholly general nor specific.They are between the two extremes,e.g.child,student,flower,etc.The support definedThe ideas and information intended to convince readers that the claim is sound or believable. What is conciseness?Conciseness means being direct and to the point.Redundant words or wordy writing is not concise.Do not over-use words to deliver the message in your writing.Refutation definedRefutation is attempts to prove views against the writer 's position wrong or false.It is often an indispensable part of an argumentative essay,for it shows that the writer is aware of opposing viewpoints and has thought about both sides.Essays that mainly refute opposing views are known as rebuttal arguments.Fallacies definedFallacies are statements that may sound reasonable or true but are not logically defensible and may actually be deceptive.The emotional appeal definedEmotional appeal is a strategy writers and public speakers use to persuade,which is to arouse the reader's/audience's feelings to reinforce an argument.真题：What is the research paper?What is the process of writing it?A research paper is usually a formal,fairly long and well-documented composition. Process： 1.choosing a topic2.Collecting information3.Analyzing the information,organizing ideas and working out an outline4.Writing the first draft5.Revising the draft and finalizing the paper.What is the sentence?What is the effective sentence?A sentence contains at least a subject and a predicate verb:if the verb is transitive,there must be an object,if the verb is a link verb,there must be a predicative or complement.They are unity,coherence,conciseness,emphasis and variety.How many types of sentences according to the use?What are they?There are four.They are declarative,interrogative,imperative and exclamatory sentence.How many types of sentences according to the structure?What are they?There are four.They are simple,compound,complex and compound-complex sentence.。