Lexical morphemeLexical morpheme is the set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of messages we convey, e.g., book, desk, house, love, look, long, happy.Since we can create new lexical morphemes for the language rather easily, they are called an open class of wordsFunctional morphemeFunctional morpheme consists of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. e.g., and, but, because, if, when, on, above, in, it, the and that. As we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are called a closed class of words.bound morphemes Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g., -s, -er, -ed and –ing. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes. Bound morphemes are actually affixes. All affixes in English are boundAffixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which case they are called prefixes. Prefixes can change the meaning or function of the word. e.g. impossible, enlarge.Affixes can also be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suffixes. Suffixes can also change the meaning or function of the word. e.g. kindness, uselessBound morphemes can be classified into two categories: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.Derivational morphemes, which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.Inflectional morphemes are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word. Inflectional morphemes are used to indicate whether a word is singular or plural, whether it is in the past tense or present tense, and whether it is a possessive or comparative formThe most important ways of word formation are COMPOUNDING and DERIV A TIONBy means of compounding, two free morphemes are combined to form a compound. Compounds have strict patterns. The first element in the compound receives the main stress, but it is generally the second element (the head of the compound) that determines the compound’s new word class. e.g. blackbirdConversion (Class shift/Zero derivation): Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun. Such instances are called conversion. Conversion is a special case of derivation. Instead of adding an affix to a stem, the stem takes a zero form. Conversion is particularly productive in modern EnglishInvention: Many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, nylon, Xeros Frigidaire, granola, etc.Blending: A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms. This process is called blending. Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding。

smoke + haze = smaze Clipping (Abbreviation): The process by which parts of a word have been cut off is called clipping. That is, abbreviations of longer words may become words。

Professor-- prof Clipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speechAcronym NA TO Initialism CDBack-formation: Suffixes like –er or -or are used to make nouns from verbs. So we have worker, educator. But there are times when we remove a suffix to get a new word. e.g. We get edit by dropping –or.Analogical creation: It can be used to explain the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs work worked, wroughtBorrowing 外来语French: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, soldier, war, faith, religion, coat, costume, dress, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast, customer, money, price, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, studyLatin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minorGreek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasySpanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanillaItalian: aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcanoDutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yachtArabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zeroIndian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, yogaChinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoonThe structural approachStructural analysis is a type of descriptive approach. Its main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a languageImmediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)The linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions and may themselves also be constructions composed of smaller parts. This approach is to show how small constituents or components in sentences together to form larger constituents+P88The generative approachPhrasal or constituent structure grammar: a particular type of labelling of the constituents at each level of the structural hierarchyDeep and surface structure Deep structure is the abstract syntactic representation of sentences. The deep structure of a sentence is its most basic structure both semantically and syntacticallyThe sentences that have the form that people can actually say are called surface structure.The surface structure is the result of the operation of transformational rules on deep structureSemantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language. It stands at the very center of the linguistic quest to understand the nature of language and human language ability because expressing meanings is what languages are all about.Sense and referenceare two different, though related, aspects of meaning. The semantic links between elements within the vocabulary system is an aspect of their senseP107、8 Conceptual meaning, also called denotative or cognitive meaning, is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to。