Principle applied to all social practice: Human performances presuppose a received system of System （体系） relations (可以接受的差异关系系统) Syntagm (语段) differential Set of pieces, Any actual ‘speech’ (parole) presupposes （并列） in Juxtaposition a system parts or details is being used. same type of dress (langue) which the which cannot be He realized that the language of differentchange, and system may elements wornthat the same must be initiated in ‘speech’. at changes （由不同成分组合的同一类型的 time on the same garments :divide the language of 服饰中的并置）: skirte.g. wearing of partgarments between ‘system’ blouse-jacket of the and ‘speech’ body :toque（羽式丝 绒帽）--bonnet（有带 女帽）-- hood（风帽）
Synonyms antonyms, other substitutions
The two disorders correspond to two figures of speech— metaphor and metonymy Contiguity disorder—substitution in the vertical dimensions—metaphor (‘den’ for ‘hut’ ) Similarity disorder—the production of parts of sequences for the wholes （不能产生序列的部分来替换整体） –metonymy (‘burnt out’ for ‘hut’ )
Metaphor and metonymy
Applied issues of structuralist theory : Cabin（小屋）, （小屋） Roman Jakobson’s study of speech defect , palace（王宫） （王宫） den（ between （ Start by stating the fundamental distinction窝） horizontal and vertical dimensions of language, related to that between langue and parole. Noticed that aphasic children appeared to lose the ability to operate one or other of these dimensions . Contiguity disorder （毗连混乱）:the inability to combine elements in a sequence Similarity disorder（相似混乱）: the inability to substitute one element for another Combine with ‘hut’: e.g. ‘hut’ (小屋) Burn out, a poor little house…
Rolandructuralists try to uncover the grammar,syntax,or phonemic pattern of particular human systems of meaning (人类意义系
统)—anthropology(人类学)
者 )
语言的社会特征，是我们作为言说者无意识依赖的共同体系
Parole : the individual realization of the system in actual instances of language
个人在具体言说语言时对语言体系的一种实现
Saussure (索绪尔) Reject the idea that language is a word-heap gradually accumulated over time and its primary function is to refer to things in the world . Symbol (标记)= thing(事物) Words are not symbols which correspond to referents ,but rather ‘signs’ which are made up of two parts: a mark （written or spoken ）---signifier(能指) 词语的书写标记 a concept –signified(所指) 词语表达的概念 Sign =signifier/signified E.g. traffic lights: red amber green Signifier (red) Signified (stop) the relation is arbitrary
Yury Lotman
本分析
（尤里·洛特曼）
诗歌文
The Analysis of the Poetic Text
Literary works have more value because they have a higher information load than non-literary texts. His approach brings together the rigour （严格） of structuralist linguistics and the close reading techniques （细读 技巧）of New Criticism
支配具体言语的规则系统
individual utterance
人们在日常交往中 使用的词句
Langue and parole
Langue : the social aspect of language ,the shared system we draw upon (unconsciously) as speakers (言说
Structuralist poetics
Jonathan Culler （乔纳森·卡勒）
The real object of poetics is not the work itself but its intelligibility（可理解性）. One must attempt to explain how it is that 可理解性） works can be understood; the implicit（内在的） knowledge ,the 内在的） conventions that enable readers to make sense of them, must be formulated… His main endeavor is to shift the focus from the text to the reader. He believes that we can determine the rules that govern the interpretation of texts(解释文本的规则), but not those rules that govern the writing of texts（教人如何写作的规则）. He sees the structure not in the system underlying the text but in the system underlying the reader’s act of interpretation.（卡勒看到一些体 系性的结构，这些结构不是在文本的下面，而是在读者读解行为的下 面）
The linguistic background
Swiss linguist: Fedinand de Saussure (索绪尔)
Course in General Linguistics
What is the object of linguistic investigation? What is the relationship between words and things? Langue(语言) -----------------------------------------parole (言语 ) Language system (pre-exists actual examples of languages)
An ensemble（组合） (sports jacket/grey-flannelled trousers（灰色法兰绒裤子）/white open-necked shirt ) is equivalent to a specific sentence uttered by an individual for a particular purpose; the elements fit together to make a particular kind of utterance and to evoke a meaning or style. No one can actually perform the system itself, but their selection of elements from the sets of garments which make up the system express their competence in handling the system.