•论证方法•举例法•对比法•因果法•数据法•类比法•举例法(一) 例子构成一个词，一个句子，多句意群• A university like Yale is prestigious one. (一个词)•Even in adulthood, we are not free from dissatisfaction. A young adult may be excited to get her first job, but right away she starts thinking about moving up and getting a better job. A young couple is finally able to buy a new house after saving for a few years. But soon they start thinking about buying another, bigger house. A man may finally reach a high position in his company after years of hard work. Not long after that, he starts thinking about retirement. We are never satisfied. (以句子表达三个短例子)•完整举例•举例引导句•例子本身•例子含义•Sometimes, factors totally unrelated to study can interfere with performance on a test. Test anxiety is an excellent illustration(举例引导句). It often strikes students who have prepared adequately and who set high standard for themselves. Test anxiety goes beyond the mild jitters that plague almost every student the night before a test. It holds its victims in a paralyzing grip. Typically, the student with anxiety looks at the first question on the test, and all the carefully studied material seems to evaporate in a haze of panic. The student knows the material before entering the examination room and may recall both questions and answers after the test has ended, but in the pressure cooker of the test environment, the answers do not come. As the example of test anxiety shows, poor test performance is not always an indication that no studying took place. (例子含义) •常见的举例引导句•X aptly illustrate the point.•X is a case in point.•X is a pertinent example.•Take X for example.•There is no better illustrative of the idea than the fact that …..•There is no better illustration of the point than the example of…•表达“例子含义”的句型•As the example/case suggest/show/indicate/illustrate/demonstrate, …•The example/case suggests/shows/indicates/illustrates/demons trates that….•The example highlights/underlines/accentuates…• A recent article in Wired magazine recounts the story of a student who, after consuming so much video, television, and Internet entertainment, had to be taken to a special camp meant to break self-destructive habits he had formed from consuming so much entertainment. Consuming entertainment had distracted him from his studies and destroyed his habits of discipline and responsibility. The student stayed in the camp for several months to recover from his over-indulgence in entertainment, much as a drug addict would spend severalmonths in rehabilitation to recover from a drug addiction. While this is an extreme case, this story highlights the negative effects of consuming too much entertainment.•举例法(二) 例子特征-writing based on knowledge and experience-knowledge: 美国主流文化人物和事例、时事-experience: 自身经历/具体化•In the business world, people with no integrity sooner or later earn the bad reputation. I know a person who still seize any opportunity that could be profitable, and will use any means to try to achieve his financial goals.Unfortunately, because they have witness his business tactics, none of his so-called “friends” actually trust him and none would cooperate w ith him, even on the smallest project. I have observed how destructive this person’s dishonest has been to his chances for success, and how relationships with other people are purely superficial, based only on self-interest.•The first reason is that when it comes to food, I prefer simplicity and healthy eating. This is not so easy when we eat out, especially when we eat Chinese dishes, most of which seem to be fried, or deep-fried, with far more oil and seasoning than I care for. Of course one ca find some steamed dishes, but when eating with friends one wishes to order dishes to everyone’s taste, and most of my friends prefer spicier and tastier dishes. When eating at home, I keep preparation time to a minimum and follow the dictum “keep it simple”. I usu ally only eat fruits for breakfast and mostly salads or vegetables for lunch and dinner. For protein I eat eggs, tuna and tofu.And, oh yes, I do bring home steamed jiao zi at least once a week, which I can simply pop into microwave.•具体化:六个W•W: what, who, when, where, how, why•what—外出就餐&在家吃饭•who —自己& 朋友•when —吃中国餐时•where —家里或饭店•how —做饭内容与过程•why —整段•艺术的重要性•Art is important to students because it gives them an opportunity to express themselves creatively and discover heretofore unknown aspects of their personalitis.•When a six-year-old child plunge his hands into a jar of finger paints and spreads them over a canvas, he is taking advantage of an opportunity to express himself creatively. And the unrepentant joy on his face makes it clear that he is discovering aspects of his personality that are new and exciting.•Don’t say the old lady screamed. Bring her on and let her scream.—Mark Twain•一例多用•家人与朋友想比，谁对一个人影响更大•Jack Thomas Andraka: inventor, scientist and cancer researcher (维基百科)•Family interested in science•The boy’s father, Steve Andraka, is a civil engineer. Their mother, Jane Andraka, is an anesthetist. She told the Sun “…we’re not a super-athletic family. We don’t go to much football or baseball.” “Instead we have a million science magazines and sit around the table and talk about how people came up with their ideas and what we would do differently.”•对比法: 针对一个问题的正反两面或题目中对立的两个方面进行论述•有无对比、今昔对比等•词汇参过度词表•参加体育锻炼与不参加体育锻炼•有无对比•By performing a variety of activities, young people can reap both physical and psychological benefits. Not only do they improves cardiovascular and muscular fitness and keep a healthier body weight by participating in physical activity, but also they are better at controlling their anxiety and depression. In addition, they have access to opportunities for social interaction and attendant benefits such as building self-confidence. Without participation in physical activity, young people tend to be overweight or even obese, causing problems related to the cardiovascular and muscular system, and even debilitating their control of psychological problems.•Besides, lacking opportunities for social interaction that physical activity is likely to afford, young people might exhibit social gaucherie. If such young people are students, their academic performance is likely to suffer because of their poor health associated with absence of physical activity.•是否要善待宠物Children can learn good things in a family that treats their animals well. Such children learn to respect and care for living things, especially living things that are helpless to care for themselves. They learn the value of life. In contrast, Children who grown up in families that treat their pets poorly end up disrespecting life in general. As a case in point, researchers have found that many violent criminals have a history of mistreating animals and other creatures in their childhood days. Between the two extremes, I think treating animals like family members is definitely better.•大公司工作好还是小公司工作好？•In a large company, I can start at an entry-level position and work my way up to the top. I can start in in the mailroom and, once I know the company, I can apply for a managerial position. In a small company, there would not be as much room to grow.•In a large company there is the opportunity to learn a variety of jobs. I could work in sales, in shipping, or in any department I applied for. I could be trained in a variety of positions and would have valuable experience. In a small company, there would not be the same opportunity.•In a large company, there would be more prestige. I could brag to my friends that I worked for one of the biggest companies in the world. I would always have something to talk about when I met strangers. If I worked for a small company, I would always have to explain what the company did. (Barron’s)•今昔对比First, let us consider this shift from the point of view of the employer. Traditionally, companies were seen almost as families. Long-serving workers were considered loyal. They were valued for their intimate knowledge of the company’s workings, and rewarded for with steady raises and health pension. By contrast, in today’s in creasingly competitive global climate, employers are less interested in having their payrolls burdened by paying top wages to its long-serving employees. The concept of layoffs may have been unheard in the economy of yesterday, but the reality today is one’s job may not even exist in five years. Instead, companies must establish a workforce comprised of highly skilled employees, with less concern for whether current employees are promoted.•Basic health care is available to more people now. When someone is seriously ill, he or she can go to a public hospital. There are also more clinics and doctors than there used to be. Years ago, health care wasn’t available to everyone. Some people didn’t live near a doctor or hospital and others couldn’t pay for the ca re they need.•全篇对比结构•整体式• A Vote for McDonald’sLife has offered to take me anywhere I want for my birthday dinner. She thinks I’ll choose the Chalet, but instead I want to want to eat at McDonald’s.The Chalet has a jacket-and –tie rule, and I hate wearing a jacket and tie, and the jacket’s probably too tight for me anyway. I have to dig them out of the closet and get them cleaned. I can wear ay old thing to McDonald’s. We’d also have to leave th e house early, since the Chalet requires reservations. Since it is downtown, I have to leave an hour early so I’m sure to have time to park. The Chalet cancels reservations if a party is more than ten minutes late. Going to McDonald’s on the other hand is easy. I don’t have to do any advance planning. I can leave my house wherever I’m ready.McDonald’s is a place where I feel at ease. It is b right and well lit. The employees serve with a smile, and the food is easy to pronounce and identify. I know w hat I’m going to get when I order a certain type of sandwich. I like simple meals more than gourmet ones. The Chalet is dimly lit. While I’m struggling to see what’s on my plate, I worry that I’ll knock one of the glasses off the table. The waiters at the Chalet can be uncomfortably formal, too. I get the feeling that I don’t quite live up to their standards. Even the other diners can make me feel uncomfortable.There’s a big price difference between McDonald’s and Chalet. Dinner for two at th e Chalet can easily cost $100, even without any “extras” like appetizers and desserts. Once I forgot to bring enough money. At McDonald’s, a meal for two will cost around $10.So, for my birthday dinner, or any other time, I prefer to eat at Mc Donald’s . It is convenient, friendly, and cheap.•因果法•分析事情的来龙去脉: 因果链•结果—原因•原因—结果•参见“因果关系”过度词•Watching television or movies can also have a negative effect on a student’s ability to learn. The root of these effects is found in the format of television entertainment. Television or movies typically consist of exciting images and sounds that constantly change. In one scene of a TV show, the camera angle changes several times and various sound effects in addition to human voices are superimposed on the images. Flashes of light and sound are common. Because of these traits, some studies have linked the number of hours children spend watching TV to the incidence rate of attention deficit disorder and other learning disabilities. Television and movies do not stimulate the parts of the brain that lead to structured thought and behavior. They are intended to entertain, and, rather than strengthen the mind, they weaken it.•数据法•以统计数据或研究结果做论证•数据权威/语言专业•According to the survey by America’s Research Group, 16.3 pe rcent of consumers polled said they were less willing to use credit cards than last year.•Single-gender classes have a positive effect on students’ academic performances and ambitions, according to a survey released Tuesday by the South Carolina Department of Education. Two-thirds of about 7,000 studentswho responded to the annual survey said that their SAT scores had seen a 20% rise, 83 percent said they were more likely to finish high school and apply for colleges or universities.•Research on relationship between amount of television and reading has generally shown negative correlation between large amounts of viewing and reading achievement. According to a recent study by child psychologists, children’s academic performance declines if they watch TV for five hours a day. This finding points to the negative impact of being addicted to TV.•类比法•运用两个事物之间有相似点来说明道理•类比本身是论据，被类比事物可以看作论点•类比关系词: likewise, in a like manner, similarly, in the same way, similar to•Growth, reproduction, and daily metabolism all require an organism to expend energy. The expenditure of energy is essentially a process of budgeting, just as finances are budgeted. If all of one’s money is spent on clothes, there may be none left to buy food or go to the movies. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction. (Opportunists and Competitors)•Movies made for the sole purpose of amusing and entertaining should be viewed like junk food: a little is good once in a while, but it should be consumed with moderation. We should always think about what we absord, whether it is nutritious for our bodies or food for our souls.。