The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range areThe study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all soundss point of view, i.e. howi.e. how the soundsIt studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which theIt studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means byor sounds sequencesto show soundsof lettersa speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.are produced by moving’s representedand how sounds formtwo phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment anddon’t distinguishparticular language.The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographicallyTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than thethe initial consonantof words and rulesA group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new wordsA group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept newwithout alteringchanges the meaningof a word, and which usually changes the part The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others.Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.categories,how morphemes combineA combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordsthe morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modificationaffixes are addedA branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences andsame or similar functionsWords can be grouped together into a relatively small number ofone type of word level categories, which often assumed to be theone type of word level categories, which helps or modifies majorsyntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized asofelements of the same typeknown as coordination.)s complement is included in the headThe sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complementthe elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause isembedded is called matrixof heads is calleda special type of rule that can move an element from one position tofrom the Infl positionIn the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule inthe sentence which resultwh- word are calledwh‘ is a cover term foepertain to the grammarshow small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.of linguistic items,thatwhich are simultaneouslyof breaking up sentencesOne construction whose distribution isThe typical（03）orderly.(08F)ofamong groupsThe total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs,It refers to the common ways that members of some social group usecategorizedifferent language offer people difference ways of expressinglanguage, to some extent, determines the way in which we view is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of the languageThe association of a word, apart from its primary meaning,showingSomething 11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference toThrough communication, some elements of culture A enter culture Border to protect the purity of their language, some countries18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national orthe addition Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons oflanguage as behaviour and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habitbeings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics ofs acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e.human childof everyA special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slowat the rightThe hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formalapplications early multiword speech that contains content words andmeaning Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons ofSome acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same conventional words for something else when a proper word is available,then they contrast it children may begin a word with a prototype and extend its featuresacquirescommunication(as a mediumIt compares comparable features of the native language and targethypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner willthe transfer occurs when both the native language and target languages native language into a It firstly describes interlanguage independently or objectively then aerrors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference atErrors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of theavailable strategies in new situations, in whichsimilar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation.unintentionally deviant from the target languge and not self-corrigible by themistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms anda learner’s competence in language,based on the studylanguage which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.by Krashen , which states that in second language’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught, informal learning or natural learning.):to the way children acquire their first language,withoutlearning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning theInput language which contains linguistic items that are slightly’s believed to be relatedaffective state or learning drive,has a strong impactthat people learn a foreign language for externalthe drive that people learn a foreign language because of thethe drive that learners learn a second language for externalthe drive that learners learn the second language for enjoymentwhat’language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in whichuse the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processesA technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization ofperceptionThe experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results inoften causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems toit is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unablerules.the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string ofwords than23.module:units.24.Minimal attachment:we prefer attaching new items into the phrase marker being constructed using the fewest syntactic nodes consistent with the rules of the language. (e g. Mike kissed Lucy and her sister…)te closure:wherever possible, we prefer to attach new items to the current constituent to reduce the burden on working memory during parsing.(E.g.: Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday. )26.cohort model: in word comprehension,words are analysed by hearers from beginning to end.27.Selectional restrictions---a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning form part of the word-processing system28. Hierarchical Structure----Our representation od complex words is organized in terms of hierarchical morphological structure.29.Levelt’s model of speech production:Four stages of production: conceptualizing----- > formulating---- >articulating---- > self-monitoring.(1) Conceptualizing: we must conceptualize what we wish to communicate.(2)Formulating: we formulate this thought into linguistic plan in the Formulator. It contains grammatical and phonological process and draws upon the lexicon.(3) articulating:the information is passed to the Articulator from Formulator which actually produces the utterance.(4) self-monitoring.:We monitor our speech, to assess whether it is what we intended to say and how we intended to say it.．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．1. Acculturation(同化过程） is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）; a sequence of two utterances by different speake rs in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/ans wer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way.4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of o ne word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is gramma tically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day. There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the tempora l structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant. E.g. /p/ in the word pit.8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible fric tion. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.9. converstional implicature（会话含义）: meanings that are explicable in the l ight of converational maxims.municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriat ely in social situations.11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large un it within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, p repositional phrase and clause.12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the fo rm of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.14.closed class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and doe s not readily accept new members.15.coinage（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words.16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic elemen t or form can appear in a language.17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small numbe r of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful uni ts.18.entailment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second) is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet. 20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender ass umes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the as sumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret t he sentence.21.free variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexpl oded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation with t he exploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection（屈折变化）: the morphological process by which affixes combine w ith words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.ernment（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a pa rticular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires t hat the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him. nguage universal (语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not a ll, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among gr oups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.27.microsociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of so ciety,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.28.paradigmatic relation: (纵组合关系) The substitutional relation between a s et of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can b e substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g, b,p,s,f are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Natur e,Beauty, Love, Honesty in the sentences:Nature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elem ents which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sen tence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been take n”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.31.prototype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the bes t example of a lexical category,e.g.for some English speakers “cabbage”(rathe r than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.32.root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.33.stem（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.34.taboo（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered inappro priate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles th at enable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without inst ruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universa l Grammar.（这是今年复试面试时教授的问题。