Chapter 9 Changes in Word Meaning⏹9.1 Causes of Changes in Word Meaning⏹9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Change⏹9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of WordsDefinition: Change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to established words.9.1 Causes of Changes in Word MeaningA.Historical cause 历史原因It often happens that though a word retains its original form ,its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed .*Changes of meaning because of increased knowledge of the object described are common in the history of science.Eg.pencil ==is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”毛笔.Later, when it was made of wood and graphite ,it was still called a “pencil”.atom ==It was borrowed though Latin and French from Greek arouos ,invisible. Thus atom meant originally “an particle too small to be divided”. This meaning is now out-of-date, because scientist have found out that atom can be split.B.Social cause 社会原因Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change.Some technical words have lost their specialized meaning and have come to be used in more general senses.Eg.feedback (Electr.) =means “response” in common use ,as in “The teacher likes to have feedback from his students”;allergic (Med.)=means “being unusually sensitive to the action of particular foods, pollens, insect-bites ,etc.”*A specific environment may add a fresh and highly technical sense to a word of general use .Eg.energy =(Phys.) ability of matter or radiation to do workdecline =(Gram.) inflect, state the case-forms ofC.Foreign influences 外来文化影响A particularly important cause .eg.-pig ,sheep ,ox(cow)denote the names of both the animals and their meat in the Old English period ,but since the meat was called pork ,mutton and beef respectively among the Norman conquerors, the original terms are now used only as the names of the animals.-dream meant “joy” in OE, it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.D.Linguistic cause 语言上的原因*Two tendencies: towards ellipsis省略and towards analogy类推.-Ellipsis as a cause of semantic change often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adj.+n.,or attributive n.+n.,in which the noun is often deleted and only the first element (the attributive )is left ,but retaining the sense of the whole phrase .eg.a general –a general officer 一位将军an editorial –an editorial article一篇社论bugle –bugle horn 号角gold–gold medal ,as in the Olympic Games金牌uniform –uniform dress 制服transistor –transistor radio 收音机daily –daily newspaper 日报duplicate –duplicate copy 副本-Analogical tendency: New meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical base.eg.diplomatic (外交的，外交上的)which had earlier meant only “skillful in managing international relations,” had by 1826 developed the sense of “tactful in the management of relations of any kind ;artful management it dealing with others.” By 1848，this new meaning had been passed on to the noun diplomacy. （外交；外交手腕；交际手段）E.Psychological cause 心理学上的原因*Three formsa)Euphemism委婉People have a tendency to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact (such as death, disease, unfortunate events or crime), and of taboo subjects as sex and the excretive processes of the body.eg. hence death and things related to death-to pass away-to breathe one’s last -to cease to think-to fall asleep -to go west-to kick the bucket -to be no moreb)Grandiloquence 夸张Grandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effort .The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in the change of word meaning.eg.janitor看门人；守卫；门警–custodian管理人；监护人；保管人gardener园丁；花匠；园艺家–landscape architect造园技师；环境美化设计家reform school教养院；少年犯管教所–community home少年感化院；c)Cynicism 嘲讽Cynicism: the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic.eg .pious虔诚的；敬神的；可嘉的；尽责的--hypocritically virtuous 伪善地善良fanatic狂热的；盲信的—unreasonably enthusiastic ,almost approaching to madnessgrandiloquent夸张的；夸大的；大言不惭的—pompous in language ;given to beautiful talksanctimonious假装虔诚的；假装圣洁的；假装诚实的–devout ,holy or sacre d9.2 Four Tendencies in Semantic ChangeA.Restriction of meaning (specialization) 词义的缩小/具体化♦Restriction of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow , specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.B.Extension of meaning (generalization) 词义的扩大/普遍化♦Extension of meaning: means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.*Two main reasons for this tendency :1. The predominant developmental trend is in the direction of differentiation rather than ofsynthesis;2. Related to the first ,is that the formation of general concepts from specific terms is of lesserimportance in non-scientific communication though it is rather a characteristic of scientific endeavor .C.Degeneration of meaning (pejoration) 词义的降格/语义转贬♦Two main forms:1.The failing of word meaning into disrepute, for one reason or another .eg. silly1)Originated from the AS sœlig meaning “blessing and happy”2)Since the blessed people are usually those innocent of evil ,the word came to mean “innocent” inthe 17th century3)As innocent people are so often those leading simple lives, it later came to mean “simple” and“simple-minded”, which is often associated with “lack of intelligence”4)hence the modern meaning of the word silly :“foolish”.2.This form may take the form of the gradual extension to so many senses that any particularmeaning which a word may have had is completely lost.*This form refers to the weakening of meaning resulting from habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.D.Elevation of meaning (amelioration) 词义的升格/语义改良♦Elevation of meaning: a word meaning takes a turn for the better in the course of time, and has either risen from a “snarl” word to a “purr” word ,or from a slang term to a common word.9.3 Semantic Development or Change Resulting from the Figurative Use of WordsA.Metaphor隐喻，暗喻♦Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing in applied to another, a process which often results in semantic change or figurative extension of meaning.eg. food for thought ,a heart of stone ;thunderous applausea cunning person –foxa beautiful woman –vision美景♦Two types:a)The similarity between tenor and vehicle may be based on likeness in form or appearance; on aresemblance in relative position; in quality or in function.eg. eye of a needlethe teeth of a combthe bridge of a pair of eyeglassesthe crest of a mountainb)There is one psychological process which also produces linguistic results similar to those ofmetaphor:eg. synaesthesia. 联觉“which is based on transportation from one sense to another”*Many words have been used so frequently as metaphors that their metaphorical sense have become well-established in people’s minds. They are called faded metaphors and appear as one of the word’s meanings listed in any standard dictionaries.B. Metonymy 借喻，转喻，借代♦Metonymy is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it.eg. the white house –the president or for the presidential staff of the US♦Categories of metonymy:a)Sign for the person or thing signified;eg. from the cradle to the grave (for “from infancy until death”)b)Container for its contents; the place for the people occupying it;eg. the bottle (for alcoholic drink ) wardrobe (for a person’s collection of clothes)c)The abstract for the concrete;eg. the pride (of our university ) the management (for governing body ,board of directors ect.)d)The concrete for the abstract;eg. tongue(for language ) the floor(the right of one member to speak, as in “to have the floor )e) A part for the whole and vice versa;eg. a sail for a ship (as in “a fleet of fifty sail )f)The material for the ting made.eg. silver for coins made of silver (as in “£20 in notes and £3 in burglars)。