Chapter Six Language and Cognition1. What is Cognition?Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.个人心理过程或知识的能力，包括意识、知觉、推理和判断等。
Three approaches⏹The formal approach:structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.形式法主要研究语言结构模式，包括对形态、句法和词汇结构的研究。
⏹The psychological approach: language from the view of general systems rangingfrom perception, memory, attention, and reasoning.心理法从一般的认知系统如感知、注意和推理的角度来研究语言。
The conceptual approach:how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.认知法关注语言中组织概念内容的方式和过程。
2. Psycholinguistics 心理语言学⏹Psychological aspects oflanguage.⏹Psychological states andmental activity with the use of language.⏹Language acquisition,language production & comprehension.心理语言学是对语言的心理方面的研究，通常研究与语言使用相关的心理状态和心理活动，如语言的习得、产生和理解等。
Six subjects of research⏹Language acquisition (L1 /L2)语言习得⏹Language comprehension 语言理解⏹Language production 语言产生⏹Language disorders语言障碍⏹Language and Thought 语言和思维⏹Neurocognition 神经认知2.1 Language Acquisition⏹Holophrastic stage 独词语阶段（1-1.2/2）⏹Language’s sound patterns 开始学习发音⏹Phonetic distinctions inparents’ language. 开始对父母话语语音的差别敏感⏹One-word stage: objects,actions, motions, routines. 多是具体名词，说明动作、行为和常规的词，社交常用语，非独词的记忆模块Two-word stage: around 18m⏹Acquisition speed: one word every two hours⏹Word order: 妈妈抱抱/ 抱抱妈妈⏹Three-word-utterance stage ⏹Give doggie paper.⏹Put truck window.⏹Tractor go floor.Fluent grammatical conversation stage⏹Embed one constituentinside another:⏹Give doggie paper.→⏹Give big doggie paper.⏹Usemore function words:missing function words and inflection in the beginning (90%), but good use by the age of 3, with a full range of sentence types.⏹All parts of all languages areacquired before the child turns four.⏹使用更多的功能词：3岁之前的话语象电报，忽略功能词和曲折形式；语言的各方面都可在四岁前掌握（除了罕用、主要用于书面语中的句式结构或者成人也要费力掌握的句式结构）2.2 Language comprehension- （1）Word recognition 单词辨识 Mental lexicon （心理词汇库）:information aboutthe properties of words,retrievablewhen understanding language⏹For example, we may usemorphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it, and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word.⏹It means that frequency ofexposure determines our ability to recall storedinstances.Connectionism （联结主义）:readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove, and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to thesepatterns, like love.读者利用拼写单元和语音单元之间同一个连接系统来产生书写词如tove的发音，并且提取形似单词stove的发音，或此类的例外形式如love的发音。
Similarity and frequencyplay important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items beingprocessed based on their similarity to the known ones. ⏹Cohort theory （集群理论）:⏹Marslen-Wilson & Welsh(1978) ⏹The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set of word candidates that are consistent with the input. ⏹Interactive model （交互模式）:⏹Higher processing levelshave a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels.⏹Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sub-lexical units.⏹In certain cases, listeners’knowledge of words canlead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.⏹Race model （竞争模式）:⏹Pre-lexical route: computesphonologicalinformation from the acoustic signal⏹Lexical route: thephonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed⏹When word-levelinformation appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race.⏹Factorsinvolved in wordrecognition:⏹Frequency effect （频率效应）:the ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L. ⏹Recency effects （近因效应）:the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.⏹Cotext （语境）: We recognizea word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.Spoken words are spreadout in time, spoken word recognition is generally considered a sequential process. With many printed words, the eyes take in all of the letters during a single fixation. The connectionistmodels of reading maintain that all phonemes of a word are activated in parallel. Dual-route models, in contrast, claim that the assembly process operates in a serial fashion such that the phonological forms of the leftmost elements are delivered before those for the succeeding elements.Lexical ambiguity⏹All the meanings related tothe word are accessed. ⏹Only one meaning is accessed initially.E.g.⏹Are you engaged ?⏹My friend drove me to the bank. ⏹After taking the right turn at the intersection ，….The clerk (entering): Are you engaged?Augustus: What business is that of yours? However, if you will take the trouble to read the society papers for this week, you will see that I am engaged to the Honourable Lucy Popham, youngest daughter of. . . The clerk: That isn’t what Imean. Can you see a female? Augustus: Of course, I can see a female as easily as a male. Do you suppose I am blind?(George Bernard Shaw: Augustus Does His Bit) Comprehension of sentencesSerial models串行模式: thesentence comprehensionsystem continually and sequentially follows constraints of a language’s grammar 句子理解系统以及高速度持续而有序的理解语言的语法约束条件Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range ofinformation that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information.⏹Any such representation isthen quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant.⏹串行模式描述了处理器如何根据有限的可以确保句子解析贴切性的信息—主要是语法信息—构建一个句子的单个或多个表征，然后运用相关的信息对这些表征进行解析和评估。