The Cause and Tendency of SemanticChange in EnglishBy吴冰姿1015010305A student of English Department of College of InternationalLanguages and CulturesHohai UniversityNovember,2012CONTENTS1. Introduction2. Literature review2.1 Current situation2.2 Research areas3. Methodology·The type and trend of semantic change ·The cause of the change of word meaning ·The effect of semantic change4. Analysis of semantic change in English4.1 The type and trend of semantic change4.2 The cause of the change of word meaning4.3 The effect of semantic change5. Conclusion6. ReferencesAbstract: All kinds of languages are constantly changing. It is mainly concerned about pronunciation, word meaning, semantic and sentence structure. And the change of word meaning is the most obvious and rapid. This paper analyses the cause of the change through linguistic aspect, the trend of semantic changes and the effect of the change.Key words: word meaning, change, cause, effect1.IntroductionNowadays, we can easily find that word meaning changes in english are keeping striking our eyes. Some words have come into appearance in all aspects of our life while some words have disappeared as they lost the favor of people. Facing so many English new words, how can the English learners learn them efficiently? The answer is that we should know how the word meaning changes and analyses the principles. It is very helpful for english learners to learn english words when they know why words change. There are many reasons for the lexical meaning change. The paper will discuss the linguistic factors mainly.2.Literature review2.1 Current situationSince 1987, scholars have started to notice the change of word meaning. During 1987 to 2009, many researches have been written. The overseas scholars like Roy Peter Clark Published Change in the Meaning of Words Demands Care in the Use of Language on Poynter in 2009. He believed that there is some predictability in the way words change over time.And Grzega, Joachim published "Historical Semantics in the Light of Cognitive Linguistics: Aspects of a new reference book reviewed" in 2000. And Traugott, Elizabeth Closs published "From less to more situated in language: the unidirectionality of Semantic change", in Adamson, Silvia, 1990.Domestic scholars like CHEN Lei-jing (Shaoguan Radio & TV University, Shaoguan 512005,Gunangdong, China) wrote an essay Exploration of the Change of English Word Meaning from Socio-Linguistic Perspective. This essay analyses the basic factors such as the social environment, the social psychology and the social culture etc. through socio-linguistic perspective.And Yang Yuan (Leshan teachers college) published The Significance of Context in Understanding the Word Meaning on Time Education. This essay reviews the significance of context in understanding the words. In order to well grasp the correct word meaning from contexts, we should know better about the contexts and have a good command of knowledge of cross culture and background information. Wang Xiaosu published Factors in the Change of English Word Meaning on New Countryside in 2011. The essay emphasized that word meaning is significant in English learning and explored the factors in the change of English word meaning. XU Jing wrote The Change of Word Meaning and the Structural Relations of Linguistic Signs on Journal of Pla University of Foreign Languages in 2000. In his opinion, here are two main reasons——the change of the two types of structural relations of linguistic signs-syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation-in practical language use.Mao Shuaimei (2006) delivered On the Cognitive Mechanism of the Semantic Change of English & Chinese Acoustic Verbs on Journal of Hunan Institute of Engineering. This paper explored the origin and understanding of the semantic transfer of the English and Chinese acoustic verbs " to listen/to hear" and " not to listen /not to hear" from the perspective of metaphorization subjectification within the framework of cognitive linguistics. It enhanced our universal knowledge of semantic relevance and sematic variation. The differentiating adaptation of social, cultural and psychological factors should be taken into consideration in the study of metaphorization subjectification.LI Hua published The New Change and New Development of English Words on Journal of Shazhou Polytechnical Institute of Technology. This paper listed some typical examples in such fields as science and technology, politics and economy, culture and education, sports and entertainment with the hope to arouse reader’s awareness of the rapid development of English words during these years and to update their English so as to adjust to the requirement of modern life.Many of them talked about the cause of the change of English word meaning. Semantic change can't happen in a closed state, it is influenced and restrict by society and history. Semantic change is related closely to social development, social environment, social status, national morale, racial morale, gender difference, social value and other social factors. Ren Li-bo and Zhang Dong-hong discussed thefactors that influence semantic change in An Initial Investigation of the Causative Factors for the Semantic Change of English Vocabulary in 2008. From the semantic change and development of English vocabulary, their paper analyzes the causative factors for the connotative and denotative semantic development. That apart, it discusses the positive value that the semantic change of the vocabulary to the social development, and the tendency of change of the English vocabulary.Till the year of 2009, Fu zuoyu considered that besides social and historical factors, semantic change is related to the development of language itself. And Chen Leijing and Wang Huawei studied both social factors and linguistic factors. However, those factors above are all external causes of semantic change. Grzega, Joachim have already published "Historical Semantics in the Light of Cognitive Linguistics: Aspects of a new reference book reviewed" in 2000 which talked about the cognitive factor's importance in semantics. The fundamental motive of semantic change comes from the ceaseless development and change of subject's cognitive thinking. The metaphor and metonymy of cognitive subject and cognitive model prototype category theory reveal the underlying mechanisms of semantic change.2.2 research areasIn recent years, people tend to study the social and historical factors more, which are the external causes. There are few researches study linguistic factors, which are the internal causes.To sum up, semantic change means the word meaning changes when the basic form of the word stays the same. So far, people have summarized five major causes: psychological caus, society factors, history factors, foreign influence and internal factors.3.Methodology(1)The type and trend of semantic change(2)The cause of the change of word meaning(3)The effect of semantic change4. Analysis of semantic change in English4.1 The type and trend of semantic changeThere are four major types of semantic: extension of meaning (generalization),narrowing of meaning (specification), elevation of meaning (amelioration), degradation of meaning (deterioration). And after the referral, I want to analyses the principle behind this, which is the tendency. (曹务堂.试论英语词义变化的原因及趋势[J].1994,(4):.)4.1.1 Extension of meaning (generalization)It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept. For example，Word Original meaning Present meaning Tendencypicture a painting ordrawing a photographa cinematic picturean x-ray picturea TV picturea radio-telescopepictureany pictureFrom specific togeneralrubbish rubble anything worthless From specific togeneralsalary a sum of moneygiven to Romansoldiers to enablethem to buy salt fixed payment madeby employer at regularintervals to employeesFrom propernouns tocommon nounssandwich It was named afterJohn Montagu, 4thEarl of Sandwich,an 18th-centuryEnglish aristocrat. a popular fast food From propernouns tocommon nounsmatter timber,the hard partof a tree n.1.that which hasmass and occupiesspace2.a vaguelyspecified concern3.some situation orevent that is thoughtabout4.a problem5.havingconsequence6.written worksv.have weight; haveimport, carry weightFrom concreteto abstractthing a public assemblyor a council1. a special situation2. an action3. an artifact4. an event5. a statementregarded as an objectetc.From concreteto abstract4.1.2 Narrowing of meaning (specification)It is a process by which a word used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English. For example,Word Original meaning Present meaning Tendency meat food flesh of animalsGeneral to specificroome.g.There is still room for improvement.space for movemente.g.the living room. an area within a building enclosed by walls and floorand ceiling Abstracttoconcretememory e.g.In my memory, he is a good boy. something that is rememberede.g.A memory and the CPU form the central part of acomputer. anelectronicmemory devicecommon wordtechnical termliquor liquid ardent spirits From borrowing4.1.3 Elevation of meaning (amelioration)Elevation refers to a process by which words rise from humble beginning to the positions of importance. Some words early in their history signified something quite low and humble, but changed as time went by to designate something agreeable and pleasant. For example, Word Original meaning Present meaning Tendencynice ignorant, foolishdelighted, pleasantFrom low and humble to agreeable and pleasant.angel messenger Messenger of god knight servant rank below baronet governor steersmanhead of a stateshrewdkeen-witted, clever, or sharp in practical affairs.evil, bad, wicked, mischievous, etc. In deed, elevation of meaning is also a special kind of narrowing of meaning. 4.1.4Degradation of meaning (deterioration)It is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into illreputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. For example, Word Original meaning Present meaningTendencysilly blessedandhappy---innocent----simpleorsimple-minded ----foolishCommendatory to derogatorysadfull, satisfied, contented ----- calm ------ serious ----sorrowfulcriticize apprise find fault with lust pleasuresexual desireSometimes a word shows deterioration in some of its uses, but maintains itself in others. This can be seen in the word execute, which has been used to mean to kill someone as a lawful punishment. This meaning has a negative value. The central meaning of this word is to carry out (an order, a plan, or a piece of word, etc.) Many adjectives may be excellent in themselves, but if they are used too often, they will undergo deterioration and become mere symptoms of approval or disapproval without any particular meaning of their own. A good example is the adjective lovely, which initially means attractively or admirably beautiful. But today the average man's lovely has no such limited meaning. It is used in collocation with almost any object, such as a lovely girl/ day/ dinner/weather/ car/ or chair. Even a gun may be described as lovely. It has come to be used so frequently that it s meaning has been weakened.So, from all the sheets, we can summarize that the trend of semantic generalization: from specific to general, from proper nouns to common nouns, from concrete to abstract, from technical terms to general words, from general to specific, from abstract to concrete, from common nouns to proper nouns, from general words to technical terms and from loan words.4.2 The cause of the change of word meaningThere are many reasons for the semantic change, historical reason, psychological reason , social reason and linguistic factors. In linguistics, the change of meaning may be caused by the internal factors within the language system (Allen;Keith Linguistic Meaning 1986). They can be effected by ellipsis, borrowing, analogy and thefigurative use of word. Then I will talk about them one by one.4.2.1 EllipsisIn principle, English is gradually becoming simple, such as 1 May, 1971, means the first day of the month of May in the year of grace nineteen seventy-one. Five O' clock means five hours of the clock. Of course, abbreviate form as a matter of course, above all is above all things.Ellipsis as a cause of semantic change often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adjective +noun, or attributive noun +noun, in which the noun is often deleted and only the first element (the attributive) is left, but retaining the sense of the whole phrase. The two words private and soldier formerly appeared side by side as a set phrase. Naturally, the association became so close that the first element could alone carry the meaning of the whole phrase. More examples: a general--a general officer; an editorial--an editorial article; bugle--bugle horn, gold--gold medal; periodical--periodical paper. Sometimes it is the second or headword of the phrase that remains, for example: (steam) engine, (coal) gas, (gas) stove, (light) bulb. Fall from fall of leaves, abolition from abolition of the slave trade. (Lin Chengzhang, 1997)4.2.2 BorrowingIn English, there are many words borrowed from Latin, French, Greek and some other languages. These words caused the changes of word meaning. A typical example is: in original English, pig, cow, sheep, did not refer to the animals, but their meat. In middle Ages, pork, beef, mutton, these three French words were used in English, and pig, cow, sheep meant animals after that. Other examples like: rear and loan word raise, clean and loan word pure, wrath and loan word anger.4.2.3 AnalogyThe analogical tendency is also constantly at work. New meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical base. Energetic formerly meant to operate, effect, as in the most energetic chemicals. However, this old sense is no longer in use. Now energetic means of having or showing energy, vigorous, forceful. As if it had been derived from energy. Another interesting example is gate. originally, it meant a movable barrier in a fence or wall. Although it is still using in this sense in contemporary English. But since theWatergate event, its meaning is given as a kind of event which is usually a scandal. For example, zipper-gate, Irangate, football-gate, etc.4.2.4. Figurative use of a word(1)MetaphorA metaphor makes a comparison between two unlike elements, this comparison is implied rather than stated. For instance, the word "head" obtains a symbolic meaning. In literal sense, it means the upper part of the human body or the front part of the body in animals; contains the face and brains. But after we take it metaphorically, it can also mean the top of something. Because head is on the top of our body. So after the extension, the word "head" has many means, including a person who is in charge and a line of text serving to indicate what the passage below it is about.(2) MetonymyMetonymy is another important factor in semantic change or development. It is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it. That is to say, a transfer of names occurs between two things associated by actual contiguity, either by physical contact, or contact through various thought associations.One turns to metonymic reasoning so that a container term may be used for what it contains (e.g. "He took to the bottle"), a term for the material can be used for the thing from which it is made (e.g. "Silk suits you"), a term for the part can stand for the whole (e.g. "We need a few more hands"), an expression for a representative entity can stand for what is represented (e.g. "Washington is veto to proposal"), or an expression for a unique or conspicuous feature or an act in a temporary context can be taken to refer to someone who has the feature or does the act (e.g. "The cheeseburger didn't order onions"). The last case may not result a fixed new meaning. (陈新仁. 英语语言学使用教程，苏州大学出版社，2007,3.)4.3 The effect of semantic changeEnglish words become more difficult for English major students to digest as the words keep changing meanings. Some words no longer use the old meaning and some keep using. Apparently, the semantic change has cause a lot effect. It may also has a big effect on vocabulary teaching and dictionary compilation.However, it also has negative influence. In the process of extension, some words changed from proper nouns to common nouns. Take nylon as an example. Nylon was first produced on February 28, 1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPont's research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. It is the name of the brand. But because it is wildly known, people use the word nylon to represent all the thermoplastic polyamide. So the company's patent is violated. Through this example we can see that the generalization can bring a lot of judicial dispute at economic sphere.5.ConclusionAll these changes are complex, but also follow some rules. The causes of semantic changes from social, psychological and linguistic. Among them, linguistic cause is the most important one. Restriction, extension, transference, degeneration and elevation are five types of semantic changes. They supplement each other, for example, the meaning of a word could be enlarged, and it could also be elevated at the same time.Language effects life. It brings us convenience and is hard to handle at the same time. So does the changes of the word meaning. However, changes always there, and it is important for us to know these changes as well as to keep us with them. Therefore, demonstrating some rules about the changes of word meaning, all the readers may know more about semantic changes, so that, they could study, remember and use English words more easily and correctly.6.Reference曹务堂.试论英语词义变化的原因及趋势[J].外语教学(西安外国语学院学报),1994,(4):.陈新仁. 英语语言学使用教程，苏州大学出版社，2007,3.戴炜栋，何兆熊. 新编简明英语语言学教程[m]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社,2002.胡壮麟. 语言学教程[m]. 北京: 北京大学出版社,2001.林承璋. 英汉词汇学引论. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，1997陆国强. 现代英语词汇学.上海: 上海外语教育出版社1999.杨翠萍.社会发展对英语词义变化的影响[J].合肥学院学报(社会科学版),2004,(1):. Allen;Keith Linguistic Meaning 1986Geeraerts Dirk , "Reclassifying Semantic change".1983.James F. Shepherd. College V ocabulary Skills Forth Edition [M] Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1991; 54, 51Jackson;Howard Words and Their Meaning 1945Quirk, Randolph. The Use of English. London: Longman . 1963.Shaoguan Radio & TV University, Shaoguan 512005,Gunangdong, ChinaSchendl Herbert. Historical Linguistics. Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Teaching Press. 2003.。