新题型：- Which of the following sentences is INCORRECT?- Which of the following determiners (限定词) can be placed before both singular count nouns and plural count nouns?- Which of the following refelxive pronouns (反身代词) is used as an appositive (同位语)？- Which of the following sentences expresses WILLINGNESS?- Which of the italicized parts functions as a subject?- Which of the italicized parts functions as an object?- All the following sentences have an appositive EXCEPT .- Which of the following best explains the meaning of “Shall we buy the tickets first”?- Which of the following contains an adverbial clause of cause?- Which of the following prepositional phrases can function as an adverbial?- Which of the following prepositional phrases is an adverbial of concession?- "..." The sentence means that .《综合教程》（修订版）第一册1）simple past, past progressive, past perfect; 一般过去时，过去进行时，过去完成时Use of simple past tense:1) The simple past tense is used to talk about completed actions and habits in the past.e.g. Shakespeare died in 1616.We used to walk a mile in the morning when we were in London.2) Past tense of verbs such as want, wonder, hope is used for polite inquiries.e.g. I wondered how you liked the film.Use of past progressive:1) The past progressive indicates a limited duration of time and is thus a convenient way toindicate that something took place (in the simple past) while something else was happening.e.g. Carlos lost his watch while he was running.2) The past progressive can express incomplete action.e.g. I was sleeping on the couch when Bertie smashed through the door.※as opposed to the simple past, which suggests a completed actione.g. I slept on the couch last night.3) The past progressive is also used to poke fun at or criticize an action that is sporadic buthabitual in nature.e.g. Tashonda was always handing in late papers.4) We use the past progressive of verbs such as wonder to show politeness.e.g.I was wondering if you could give me a lift.※This use is even more polite and tentative than the simple past.Use of past perfect tense:1) The past perfect tense expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in thepast. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.e.g. I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.2) If the past perfect tense is not referring to an action at a specific time, it is not optional. Compare the examples below. Here the past perfect tense is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, the past perfect tense cannot be used.e.g. She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not CorrectShe had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct2）verbs of perception + ing form/ -ed form/ infinitive form;感官动词的-ing/-ed/不定式形式Verbs of perception are a set of verbs denoting the use of one of the physical senses. Some verbs of perception see, look at, hear,listen, and feel, along with watch and sense can be used with objects followed by verbs in -ing form, -ed form and infinitive form.e.g. We heard you leave. (Emphasis on our hearing.)We heard you leaving. (Emphasis on your leaving.)John has never heard the piece played before. (Emphasis on the passive voice of play.)3）special word order with as and though as/though 引导的让步状语从句In a concessive clause introduced by though or although, the complement or the adverbial can be placed at the beginning of the sentence. The formula for the inversion is:e.g. Old as / though he is, he works hard as a young man.Hard as / though he studied, he did not pass the examination.Unit 21）generic reference and specific reference of a/an and the 不定冠词和定冠词的形式、语法意义及用法We usually use “the” when we talk about things that are unique: the sun, the sky, etc, and about things that are context specific and are known by both the speaker and the listener. If we want to describe a particular instance of these we can use “a/an”.e.g. I could see the plane (context specific, both the speaker and the listener know about theplane that is mentioned) high up in the sky (unique).When I woke up there was a bright blue sky (an instance).2）go to school or go to the school 用法区别A/an, the and zero articles can all be used in set collocations or fixed collocations and idioms. Caution that collocations with different choices of articles can mean differently.e.g. A man is standing in the front of the house. (The man is in the house.)A tree is standing i n front of the house. (The tree is outside the house.)I go to school every day. (=I go to the school to study every day.)I went to the school today. (=Today I went to some place and that place was a school.)Unit 31）more…than construction; 了解和掌握比较级最高级的结构、用法和所表达的意义※You can use “a little”, “ a lot”, “a bit”, “a great deal”, “any”, “far”, “ even”“still”, and “much” in front of more than construction.e.g. Tom is a little younger than Tim.You get far more than you pay for it.2）as…as construction;The basic pattern is as +adjective / adverb + as.e.g. John is as bright as Bob.The swimming pool isn't as wide as that one.※You can use “just”, “almost”, “nearly” , “quite” in front of "as… as"construction,e.g. Listening skills are just as important as speaking.Maybe I didn't love you quite as often as I should have.3）the mostThe superlative construction is used when three or more than three people or things are compared. In this construction there is usually a scope of comparison which may be expressed by a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, or a non-finite clause. Sometimes the scope of comparison is understood in the context and need not be expressed. In some set expressions, a scope of comparison is unnecessary at all. The negative form of the superlative construction is "the least", which, in practical usage, is usually replaced by the superlative degree of antonymous adjectives or adverbs.e.g. This is the least difficult book I have ever read.The idea of highest degree can also be expressed by other constructions. In some contexts the positive or comparative degree expresses the same meaning as is usually conveyed by the superlative.e.g. George did more work than anyone else.Nothing in my life shook me so deeply as my first visit to China.Unit 41）any, each, all, every and their compounds; any, each,all,every以及它们的复合词2）countable and uncountable nouns; 可数名词和不可数名词Common nouns can be classified into 1) countable nouns and uncountable nouns, or 2)individual nouns, collective nouns, material nouns and abstract nouns. Usually individual nouns and collective nouns are countable while material nouns and abstract nouns areuncountable. But sometimes abstract nouns and material nouns can be countable if they are used in specific sense, for example with an attribute.e.g. My children are a great joy (an attribute) to me.His room, at sixteen dollars a day, was a disappointment (something specific, and something that disappoints people).Sri Lanka produces many teas (many kinds of tea).3）prepositions 介词的用法和特点及其语法意义Unit 51）imperative sentences; 祈使句Imperative sentences, also known as “commands” begin with a verb in the imperative mood and express a command, an instruction, an order, a warning, a request, a suggestion, a wish, an invitation, etc.There are three kinds of imperatives: the second person imperatives, the first person imperative, and the third person imperatives.For the second person imperatives, if we want to enhance the force of the imperative, we can add an emphatic DO or YOU at the beginning of the sentence.e.g. Mr. Smith, you sit over there.Do come in.Let me have a look.Let’s stop and finish it later.Don’t let anyone shirk his responsibility.2）question tags added to imperative clauses; 祈使句的反意问句的构成和作用Sometimes we add question tags to the imperative sentences to soften the imperative tone.For the second person imperatives, after a positive imperative, the question tag can be “will/would/can/can’t/won’t you/?” “Won’t” is used to invite. “Will you” is often used as request. “Won’t you” is used to show less forceful orders. “Would” is less forceful than “will”and much less common. “Can’t you” can show the speaker’s annoyance. After a negative imperative, the question tag is “will you?”If t he part addressed includes only the speaker the question tag usually is “will/won’t you?” If the part addressed includes both the speaker and the listener, the tag should be “shall we?”e.g.Don’t be so noisy, will you?Stop talking, will/won’t/would/can/can’t you?Let me drive you home, will you?Let’s take a taxi, shall we?3）anther, other(s), the other(s) 用法特点及表达的意义*“Another” means 1) additional, one more (sometimes two more, three more ...) person or thing of the same type; 2) a different one, not the same person or thing.e.g. I need another week / two weeks to finish this investigation.We finally moved to another apartment.*“Other” is always followed by plural nouns. It means 1) additional; 2) else, different. “Others” means more people or things.e.g. Danny is playing with two other children.Saudi Arabia produces more oil than any other country (Singular noun must be used after “any other”.)I only know about this book, but there might be others (= other books).*“The other (one)” me ans t he second of the two people or things. “The others” (= the other ones) means the rest of the people or things. Note that here there must be a specific context.e.g. You can park on the other side of the street.She’s much brighter than all the other children in her class (“In her class” serves as a specific context.).Unit 61）simple prepositions and complex prepositions; 介词和复合介词①The prepositions, such as in, of, at, and to, are all single words. We call them SIMPLEPREPOSITIONS.②COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS consist of two- or three-word combinations acting as asingle unit. Here are some examples: according to, but for, except for, in terms of, in point of, with regard to, in the case of, etc.e.g. regardless of but for in terms of except for according to in case of2) conjunctions 连词Conjunctions are used to express a connection between words. There are two types of conjunctions. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS(or simply COORDINATORS) connect elements of equal syntactic status.e. g. Paul and DavidI play tennis but I don't play well.meat or fishOn the other hand, SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (or SUBORDINATORS) connect elements of unequal syntactic status.e.g. I left early because I had an interview the next day.I'll be home at nine if I can get a taxi.Unit 71)modal auxiliary + infinitive; 情态动词+不定式的构成方式及表达的不同语法意义Modal auxiliaries are a special type of verb in English language.Syntactically, modal auxiliaries (or “modals” for short) can only be the initial element of a finite verb phrase and are invariably followed by a bare infinitive.e.g.*Notice that: when a modal auxiliary takes the predictive meaning, the infinitive after it may appear in the perfect form to denote past timeShe must have seen how scared I was and reached over.and in the progressive form to denote future time.I sh ouldn’t be eating them anyhow.When the modal auxiliary takes the non-predictive meaning, the infinitive after it usually appears in its base form as in the first example.I could hear small pockets of soothing conversation everywhere.2) be going to and will; be going to和will的用法区别to” for decisions about the future that have already been made.e.g.“Shall I ask Sandra?” “No, she won’t want to be disturbed.”The sky has gone really dark. There’s going to be a storm.I’ll pick him u p at 8. (an offer; making an arrangement now)I’m going to collect the children at 8. (this was previously arranged)3) hypothetical past 假设性过去时的用法及语法意义(虚拟)We use hypothetical past to talk about unreal condition in the present, future and past. And in this case, we use simple past to replace the original simple present or simple future, and past perfect to replace the original past tense.e.g. I am so nervous → If only I weren’t so nervous.You are not telling the truth → I wish you were telling the truth.You didn’t listen to me and you are in great trouble now. If you had listened to me, you wouldn’t be in such trouble now.Unit 81）real and unreal conditionals; 真实条件句和非真实条件句2）it + be + … + that 强调句的用法及表达的不同语法意义Sentences introduced by "It is"or "It was"are often used to emphasize a specific subject or object. The introductory clause is then followed by a relative pronoun. “It + be + … + that” can be used to highlight the subject, object, adverbial of time, place, manner, cause.e.g.It is Jenny who spends all her money on shoes. (subject)It is shoes that Jenny spends all her money on. (object)It was in London that he met his first wife. (place)It was only when he phoned that I realized what had happened. (time)It is learning English that I find most enjoyable nowadays. (gerund action)Unit 91）simple present tense; 一般现在时①The simple present is used in the expression of eternal truths and proverbs, scientific andother statements made for all time.e.g. A rolling stone gathers no moss.London stands on the River Thames.②The simple present can express habitual or recurrent actions.e.g. Percy often goes to his office by underground.He always sleeps with his windows open.③The simple present can be used to denote a momentary phenomenon that exists at the time of speaking.e.g.What’s the matter with you? You look pale.④The simple present can be used to denote future time.e.g. I hope she likes the flowers.If it doesn’t rain tomorrow, we will go to the countryside.⑤The simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time. This use of the simplepresent is usually found with such verbs as tell, say, hear, write, learn.e.g.Mary tells me you’re entering college next year.I hear poor old Mrs. Smith has lost her son.2）present progressive; 现在进行时①The present progressive is used to denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking.e.g.Hurry up! We’re all waiting for you.②The present progressive can express an action in progress at a period of time including thepresent.e.g. Jane is studying law while her sister is doing physics.③The present progressive is used to denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement.e.g.I’m going to Shanghai for the summer holiday.When you are talking with him, take care not to mention this.④The present progressive can be used to denote an action in the immediate past and to make even politer requests with such verbs as hope, wonder.e.g.You don’t believe it? You know I’m telling the truth.I’m wondering if I may have a word with you.3）progressive verb vs. non-progressive verbs 延续性动词和非延续性动词的用法和语法意义The present progressive is commonly associated with durative dynamic verbs such as work, play, study, live, write, etc. which are progressive verbs. Those momentary verbs, denoting very short duration, such as shoot, jump, nod, put, etc. and stative verbs such as think, know, belong, believe, like, etc., are non-progressive verbs.e.g.Peter shoots and —yes, it’s a goal. The crowd are cheering and the other players arerunning up to congratulate him.Unit 101）The passive voice; 被动语态If the agent is important (the person, company or thing that does the action) , use “by”. If it is not definite and does not carry any essential information, it can be omitted.※Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive voice.e. g. Houses are built.My bike was stolen.2）subordination 引导状语从句的连词的用法和语法意义Subordination (abbreviated variously SUBORD, SBRD, SUBR or SR) is a complex syntactic construction in which one or more clauses are dependent on the main clause. Dependent clauses are also called “subordinate clauses”.Subordinate clauses are introduced by a subordinating conjunction, such as, after, although, as much as, as long as, as soon as, because, before, if, in order that, lest, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, and while, etc.e.g. I don't know if George is awake yet.George overslept because his alarm clock was broken.Unit 111）reported speech; 间接引语的表述方法Note:● Backshift of Simple Present is optional if the situation is still unchanged or if you agree with the original speaker.● Advisory expressions with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge.● The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are variouspossibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should.2）subject-verb agreement 主谓一致的用法Most likely, your verb will agree with the first noun to the left of the verb.e.g. The Supreme Court judge decides the appropriate penalty.Occasionally, a sentence has the subject after the verb instead of before it. This strategy is often used for poetic effect.e. g. Over the ripples glides a small canoe.If subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the closer subject.e. g. Either the actors or the director is at fault.The relative pronouns (who, whom, which, and that) are either singular or plural, depending on the words they refer to.e. g. The sales manager is a good researcher who spends a great amount of time surfingthe Web for information.Indefinite pronouns(someone, somebody, each, either one, everyone, or anyone) are considered singular and need singular verbs although they may convey plural meaning.e. g. Anyone who wants to pursue higher education has to pass entrance exams.A few nouns can be either plural or singular, depending on whether they mean a group or separate individuals. These words are rarely used as plurals in modern writing.e. g. The jury is sequestered.A few subjects look plural but are really singular or vice versa.e. g. The news of the discovery is spreading.The mass media have publicized the facts.Unit 121）the relative clause; 关系从句的形式及语法意义A relative clause is a clause that is introduced by a relative word—either by a relative pronoun or by a relative determiner, or by a relative adverb. Relative clauses may be restrictive or non-restrictive. antecedenta) The relative that is normally used as subject complement in an SVC construction or there beconstruction. In this use, "that" is usually omitted.e.g. When Mary was born, Dorothy decided her daughter would be the singer (that) shealways wanted to be.The 9.15 is the fastest train (that) there has ever been.b) When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun such as all, anything, something, or nothing,the following relative clause usually requires a relative that as subject, and that/zero asobject.e.g. All that live must die.All (that) I want is peace and quiet.c) When the antecedent is composed of a personal head with determiners as only, all, any, andwhen the antecedent takes a premodifier in the superlative degree,the following relative clause is normally introduced by that rather than who or which.e.g. Any man that wants to succeed must work hard.Newton was one of the greatest men that ever lived.d) A non-restrictive relative clause is usually introduced by who, whom, whose, which. Theantecedent of which may be a clause or part of a cause.e.g. This book, which only appeared a year ago, has already gone through several editions.He tried to stand on his hands for five minutes, which — as you know — is rather a difficult thing to do.2）the present and the future 现在时和将来时的不同形式即语法意义Future time is expressed by means of model auxiliaries, by semi-auxiliaries, or by the simple present and present progressive forms.1) will/shall +verbe.g. The next train to Shanghai will leave at 8 a.m.We shall know the result next week.2) be going to +verbe.g.He’s going to be a doctor, when he grows up.3) be +-ing (present participle): Verbs of movement from one place to another such as go, come, leave, start, arrive, etc. can be used in this structure.e.g. The plane is taking off at 6.30.4) be to +(infinitive)e.g.I’m to have tea with Betty this afternoon.5) simple presente.g. I’ll give it to you after I return..Unit 131）the infinitive and the –ing participle as object; 现在分词和不定式作为宾语的用法a)Verbs that are followed by –ing participle include: admit, fancy, delay, miss, involve, postpone,finish, imagine, avoid, deny, risk, practise, consider, enjoy, etc.b)Verbs that are followed by the infinitive include: decide, hope, pretend, deserve, promise,attempt, offer, agree, plan, aim, afford, manage, threaten, refuse, learn, fail, etc.c)Either infinitive or –ing participle without change of meaningVerbs that can take either an infinitive or an –ing participle as object include attempt, begin, can’t bear, continue, deserve, dread, hate, intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, start, etc. Following these words, an infinitive or an –ing participle can alternate without change in basic meaning.There are cases, however, where the transforms are not in free variation.i) After process verbs such as begin, cease, continue, start and emotive verbs such as can’tbear, deserve, dread, hate, intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, the infinitive is commonly used to refer to a specific act while the –ing participle is used to refer to a general act.e.g. I can’t bear living alone.I can’t bear to see the child so badly treated.Phil prefers doing it that way.He prefers to go by train this evening.ii) After need, want, require, deserve, an active -ing participle can be used to denote a passive meaning which can also be expressed by a passive infinitive.e.g. This letter needs signing by the manager.= This letter needs to be signed by the manager.The house wants rewiring.= The house wants to be rewired.iii) After begin and start, either infinitive or –ing form is possible, but when the infinitive is a stative verb, or when begin/start is in the progressive, we use the infinitive form.e.g. We began to see what he meant.It’s beginning to rain.d) Either infinitive or –ing participle with different meaningsThe verbs such as forget, go on, leave off, mean, regret, remember, stop, etc. that can take an infinitive or an –ing participle with different meanings fall into five sub-classes:i) After remember, forget and regret, the infinitive refers to the next action that follows the first, and the –ing participle to a previous event.e.g. Can’t you remember telling me the story last night?= You told me the story last night. Can’t you remember it?You must remember to tell him all that.= You must tell him all that. Don’t forget it.ii) After s top, leave off, go on, the –ing participle functions as object, while the infinitive as adverbial of purpose.e.g. They stopped watching TV at 9:30.= At 9:30 they did not watch TV any more.He left off writing the book.= He stopped writing the book.He left off to write the book.He left some place in order to write the book.iii) After try, mean, can’t help, the choice between an infinitive and an–ing participle depends on the meaning of the preceding verb itself.e.g. Your plan would mean spending hours.I didn’t mean to make you angry.iv) After agree, decide,there is a choice between the infinitive and “preposition + -ing”.e.g. They agreed to share the remuneration.They agreed on sharing the remuneration.v) After encourage, permit, allow, recommend, advise, authorise, either the –ing participle or the infinitive with an expressed logical subject can be used. Allow doing/allow sb to doe.g.She doesn’t allow smoking here.She doesn’t allow us to smoke here.2）the non-finite forms as adverbial and noun phrase modifier; 非限定性形式做名词短语、副词短语修饰语The non-finite forms include the –ing clause and the infinitive clause. An –ing participle clause usually refers to an active and/or progressive event, an –ed participle clause refers to an passive and/or experienced event while an infinitive clause suggests an event to be experienced. They can be used as adverbial or as noun phrase modifier.e.g. She looked at us with a smiling face.To determine the number of cells, a sample is put under a microscope.Unit 141）need; need的用法Need can be a lexical verb as well as a modal auxiliary. As a lexical verb, it is followed by a to-infinitive. As a modal auxiliary, it is non-assertive, which means it is usually used in negative sentences or questions. Note that in answer to a question introduced by need, we should use must in a positive response and needn’t in a negative response.e.g. Do we need to stay this evening?Need we work late today?No, we needn’t, but we must tomorrow.When inquiring about the necessity of doing something, either must or need can be used. If the answer is negative, we can only use needn’t or don’t have to rather than mustn’t.e.g. Need/must I see a doctor at once?No, you needn’t / don’t have to for the time being.“Needn’t have +-ed” implies that somet hing was done but was unnecessary.e.g.I needn’t have gone to the station.2）the non-finite form as noun phrase modifiers 名词性短语修饰语的用法及其语法意义The –ing form of most intransitive verbs of English can be used attributively as adjectives to indicate what someone or something is doing. –ed adjectives may refer to a person’s mental or emotional reaction to something or describe the expression or manner of the person affected. Most –ed adjectives are related to transitive verbs and have a passive meaning. A few –ed adjectives are related to the intransitive verbs and have an active meaning.e.g. Most people like fresh food and don’t like frozen food.Some people say it is an interesting book while others say that it is a boring one.《综合教程》（修订版）第二册would v.s. used to; used to v.s. be used to“Would do” refers to past actions and habits as well. Remember that “would” is also used in a conditional sense. It’s a good idea not to use “would” in questions and negative sentences, as its meaning can easily be misunderstood in a conditional sense.e. g. We’d spend a lot of money on projects that didn’t help the company.They would ask a lot of crazy questions that didn’t seem to make any sense.“Used to do” expresses something that we often did in the past, but don’t do anymore. It isoften used in the positive form to speak about repeated actions. Generally, we use the form to contrast past habits with present situations.e. g. I used to go jogging three times a week when I lived in Italy. Now, I’m too busy and canonly jog once a week.Janice used to live in New York, but moved to Seattle last year.“Be used to (doing) sth.” means someone has experienced something so that it no longer seems surprising, difficult or strange. It is always followed by a noun or gerund.e. g.Sally is used to spending hours in front of the computer every day.They’ve always lived in hot countries so they aren’t used to the cold weather here.would, should, might, couldWould can be used in some forms that are viewed as more formal or polite. It can also be used to express willingness.e. g.Would you get me a glass of water?I told him not to go, but he would not listen.Should is used to indicate that an action is considered by the speaker to be obligatory. It is used to form the future tense of the subjunctive mood, usually in the first person.e. g.You should brush your teeth every day.If I should be late, go without me.Might can be used to express a present time possibility or uncertainty. It can be used in the first person to express that future actions are being considered. It can be used in a question to ask for permission.e. g.John is not in the office today, and he might be sick.I might go to the mall later.Might your phone?Like could and would, might can also be used in polite requests and suggestions.The auxiliaries could, would and might can be used to express differing degrees of politeness.Thus, might expresses the highest degree of politeness.Could is used to express ability. It is also used to express beliefs about situations.Could can be used to make requests.e. g. I could speak English.He couldn’t have left already; why would he want to get there so early?Could you pass me the cheese?didn’t need to do / needn’t have doneBoth these patterns are used to talk about past events.“Needn’t have done something”。