Chapter 4nguage and the brain1)Broca’s area, which is usually associated with the production of language, or languageoutputs .2)Wernicke's area, which is associated with the processing of words that we hear beingspoken, or language inputs3)Lateralization: language activity is not localized, but core linguistic processes are typicallyhoused in the left hemisphere and is present to some extent even in infancy4)Critical Period Hypothesis: children had only a limited number of years during which theycould acquire their L1 flawlessly; brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age, normal language would not be possible.5)①How independent are the languages of multilingual speakers?there are three possibility for how language relate in an individual’s mind◆Coordinate bilingualism: refers to parallel linguistic systems, independent of oneanother◆Compound bilingualism : refers to a fused and unified system◆Subordinate bilingualism: refers to one linguistic system accessed throughanother②How are multiple language structures organized in relation to one another in the brain?Are both languages stored in the same areas?◆there is considerable variation among speakers. For at least some multilinguals, itappears that L1 and L2 are stored in somewhat different areas of the brain, but both arepredominantly in (probably overlapping) areas of the left hemisphere. However, theright hemisphere might be more involved in L2 than in L1.③Does the organization of the brain for L2 in relation to L1 differ with age of acquisition,how it is learned, or level of proficiency?◆The answer is probably “yes”to all three, with the strongest body of evidenceshowing that age of acquisition influences brain organization for many second languagelearners④Do two or more languages show the same sort of loss or disruption after brain damage?When there is differential impairment or recover, which language recovers first?◆Brain damage results in the same or very similar patterns of loss or recovery for both/allof most multilingual persons’languages, but many exceptions have been reported.◆the last learned language would be the first lost, the next-to-the-last learned the secondto be lost, and so forth, with L1 the last to remain; recovery was speculated to be L1first.2.Learning process1)information processing (IP): are concerned with the mental processes involved in languagelearning and use. These include: (1) perception and the input of new information; (2) the formation, the organization, and regulation of internal (mental) representation; (3) retrievaland output strategies.3)Controlled processing :①requires considerable mental “space,” or attentional effort.②Learners go from controlled to automatic processing with practice. Automatic processingrequires less mental “space”and attentional effort③Learning essentially involves development from controlled to automatic processing ofcomponent skills, freeing learners’controlled processing capacity for new information and higher-order skills4)Input:◆must be noticed by the learners before any processing takes place.◆heighten learner awareness of input and to structure attention has been a majorthrust in foreign language instructional design and pedagogy, so that successfulintake can occurOutput: for SLA is the language that learners produce in speech/sign pr in writing.5)restructuring:◆takes place during central processing makes mental representation more coordinated,integrated, and efficient.◆involves qualitative changes, meaning that L2 development cannot be characterized as aseamless continuum along which new forms are added to old, but as a partiallydiscontinuous plane along which there is regular systemic reorganization andreformulation6)U-shaped development: initially correct form, followed by incorrect form, and eventuallycorrect again7)Theories regarding order of acquisition :◆Multidimensional Model :①Learners acquire certain grammatical structure in a developmental sequence.②Developmental sequences reflect how learners overcome processing limitations.③Language instruction which targets developmental features will be successful only iflearners have already mastered the processing operations which are associated with the previous stage of acquisition.④Processability Theory: has the aim of determining and explaining the sequences in whichprocessing skills develop in relation to language learning◆Competition Model :①assumes that all linguistic performance involves “mapping” between external form andinternal function.②learning the system of form-function mapping is basic for L1 acquisition. SLA involvesadjusting the internalized system of mapping that exists in the learner’s L1 to one that isappropriate for the target language.③is accomplished by detecting cues in language input which are associated with aparticular function, and by recognizing what weight to assign each possible cue④determinants of cue strength : Task frequency, Contrastive availability, Conflictreliability P808) Connectionist approaches①Focus on the increasing strength of association between stimuli and response rather thanon the inferred abstraction of “rules”or on restructuring. From a connectionist perspective learning essentially is the change in the strength of these connections.②connectionism approach within SLA is Parallel Distributed Process/ PDP:processingtakes place in a network of nodes or units in the brain that are connected by pathways. As learner are exposed to repeated patterns of units in put, they extract regularities in the patterns;probabilistic associations are formed and strengthened. There associations between nodes are called connection strengths or patterns of activation.3.differences in learners1)Agechildren:□younger learners achieve ultimately higher level of L2 proficiency□children have only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly□younger learners develop more native-like grammatical intuitions is that they are in a non-analytic processing mode.□Younger learners are more successful in informal and naturalistic L2 learning contexts Older:□adolescents and adults learn faster in initial stages.□Older learners are advantaged by greater learning capacity, including better memory for vocabulary2)Sex:□female tend to be better L2 learners than males, but this probably primarily a social construct, base on outcomes which reflect cultural and sociopsychological constraints and influence□Women usually outperform men in verbal fluency.□Reason: higher androgen level correlates with better automatized skills3)Aptitude:①Phonemic coding ability:the capacity to process auditory input into segments which can be stored and retrieved.②Inductive (归纳的) language learning ability and Grammatical sensitivityaccount for further processing of the segmented auditory input by the brain to infer structure, identify patterns, make generalizations, recognize the grammatical function of elements, and formulate rules.③Associative memory capacityis concerned with how linguistic items are stored, and with how they are recalled and used in output.4)Motivation:①Motivation largely determines the level of effort which learners expend at various stagesin their L2 development, a key to ultimate level of proficiency.②Components of Motivation : 1) Significant goal and need;2) Desire to attain the goal;3)Perception that learning L2 is relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting the need;4) Belief in the likely success or failure of learning L2;5) Value of potential outcomes/rewards③Integrative motivation is interest in learning L2 because of a desire to learn about orassociate with the people who use it, or because of an intention to participate in or integrate with the L2-using speech community. Affective factors are dominant.④Instrumental motivation means perception of a practical value for learning an L2, suchas increasing occupational opportunities, enhancing prestige and power, accessing scientific and technical information, or passing a course in school.5）Cognitive style :⑤Definition: refers to individuals’preferred way of information processing and is closelyrelated to and interacts with personality factors and learning strategies.⑥Pairs of traits in cognitive style:◆Field-dependent vs. field-independent (FD/FI)▪FD are also considered more global and holistic in processing new information; FD learners are thought to achieve more success in L2 acquisition via highly contextualized interactive communicative experiences because that fits better with their holistic “cognitive style”▪FI are considered more particularistic and analytic and FI learners to profit more from de-contextualized analytic approaches and formal instruction.◆Deductive vs. Inductive;▪Deductive(演绎) or top-down processing begins with a prediction or rule and then applies it to interpret particular instances of input.▪Inductive (归纳) or bottom-up processing begins with examining input to discover some pattern and then formulates a generalization or rule that accounts for it and that then in turn be applied deductively◆Focus on form and on meaningExceptionally talented L2 learners possess a cognitive style whereby subjects are able to focus on form (in conjunction with meaning) better than on meaning (only).◆Differences in Children and Adults□Two options when adapting their existing categories of linguistic structure to adequately represent the structure of the new language.is extending the existing categories to include new instances from L2: in phonological structure, an L2 sound which is actually slightly different from a similar sound in L1 may be identified as the same as the L1 sound and pronounced with that value, resulting in a foreign accent.is creating new categories: in phonological structure, this would mean recognizing the slightly different L2 sound as phonologically different, and learning to keep it distinct from the similar (and often functionally equivalent) L1 soundAdults tend to extend existing categories (not noticing differences)Children notice differences and tend to create new categories accordingly.◆Sensory preference□L2 learners have different sensory preference for processing input: visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement-oriented), or tactile (touch-oriented)advantageous in L2 learningStrategies which attempt to regulate language learning by planning and monitoring.Chapter 5municative competence1)Communicative competence: basic tenet in the field of sociolinguistics defined as ‘whata speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular languagecommunity’2)Language community: a group of people who share knowledge of a common language toat least some extent.3)Four aspects of communicative competence:(1) grammatical competence,(2) Sociolinguistic competence,(3) Discourse competence and(4) Strategic competence4) FL: usually do so within the context of their own native culture and social structure.SL: is generally learned and used within the context of a language community which dominantly includes members who speak it natively; t is needed to participate in that community socially, academically, politically and economicallyAL(auxiliary language) : Is learned in a context where it will function for political or technological purpose, and when its use will generally be limited to these social domains 2. Microsocial factors1) Variation in learner language: Which variable feature occurs in the production of any one speaker depends largely on the communicative contexts in which it has been learned and is used.①Three communicative contexts:◆ Linguistic contexts : Elements of language form and function associated with variableelement.◆psychological contexts: Factors associated with the amount of attention which is beinggiven to language form during production, the level of automaticity versus control in processing, or the intellectual demands of a particular task◆microsocial contexts: Features of setting/situation and interaction which relate tocommunicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted and negotiated.②Accommodation theory: speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation andeven the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.2）Input and interaction① social perspective ：interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners withquantity and quality of external linguistic input which is requiredfor internal processing, in focusing learner attention on aspects oftheir L2 which differ from target language norms or goals, and inproviding collaborative means for learners to build discoursestructures and express meanings which are beyond the current levelof their linguistic competence.② Input modification:Foreigner talk: refers to speech directed toward linguistically deficient NNSsCharacteristics of foreigner talk: slow speech rate, loud speech, long pauses, simplevocabulary, repetitions, elaborations, paucity (少量，缺乏) of slangFunction:◇L2 learners are better able to understand.◇‘Simplification’ of sentence structure alone is of questionable value in ◇enhancing the comprehensibility of written text.◇More important for interpretive processing are the provision of relevant background knowledge and modifications which assist readers in focusingon important terms and concepts.③ Interactional modifications:◇Social interaction is also essential for L1 acquisition: no children can learn their L1 by only listening to tape recordings or watching TV.◇Interactional modifications made by L1 speakers in discourse with L2 learners appear to provide significant help.The followings are some useful types of modifications:repetition, paraphrase, expansion and elaboration, sentence completion, frame for substitution, vertical construction, comprehension check and request for clarification.④ Feedback: NSs which make NNSs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some ways,and which provide a model for correctness.◇Negative feedback:L2 learners may be in the form of direct correction, including explicit statements and explanation relates to points of grammar and usage.Or the negative feedback comes at indirect correction, which includes several of the same interactional modification forms.◇Interaction Hypothesis: The modifications and collaborative efforts to the accessibility of input for mental processing: negotiation for meaning and especiallynegotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by the NS or more competent interlocutor facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways.4)Interaction as the genesis of language◇Sociocultural Theory (SCT): Interaction is a causative force in acquisition and all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.◇Claim of SCT: Learning occurs when simple innate mental activities are transformed into ‘higher order,’ more complex mental functions.This transformation typically involves symbolic mediation, which is a link between a pers on’s current mental state and higher order functions that is provided primarily by language.◇Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This is an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance◇Claim of S-C Theory: mental functions that are beyond an individual’s current level must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently.◇Scaffolding : refers to verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them individually◇Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual’s own mind◇Private speech: one type of intrapersonal interaction, refers to the self-talk which many children engage in that leads to the inner speech that more mature individuals use to control thought and behavior.★Sociocultural Theory claims that language is learned through socially mediated activities.The S-C framework supports the view that some learners may be more successful than others because of their level of access to or participation in a learning community, or because of the amount of mediation they receive from experts or peers, and because of how well they make use of their help.★Sociolinguistic perspective: 1.what is acquired in l2 includes variable linguistic structures and knowledge of when to use each.2. the process of acquisition includes process through stages in which different types of variability are evident.3. Reasons why some learners are more successful than others include how well they can perceive and align their own usage in accord with the target system.★Integrationist perspective : p111 第三段3.Macrosocial factors1) Global and national status of L1 and L2◇Languages have power and status at global and national levels for both symbolic and practical reasons. A important symbolic function of language is political identification and cohesion.◇the symbolic function of language for political identification and cohesion even moreimportant for countries that are in the process of nation- building◇second language have also served political functions in times of conquest and empire-building.◇ the need for l2 learning at global level is motivated by control of and access to resources in areas of commerce and information/technology transfer. Opportunities as well as motivation for learning a particular l2 often depend on its relative power or status.2) Boundaries and identities◇ linguistic boundaries serve both to unify speakers as members of one language community and to exclude outsiders from insider communication◇ language communities may also reinforce their boundaries by discouraging prospective l2 learners, by holding and conveying the attitude that their language is to difficult or inappropriate for others to use◇ full participation requires learning the culture of that communality and adapting to those values and behavioral patterns◇identifies other group factors that affect SLA outcomes negatively in his acculturation model.—a process by which the culture of an isolated society changes on contact with a different one. A process by which a person acquire the culture of the society that they inhabit3) Institutional forces and constraints◇ Linguistic social control takes the form of official or unofficial policies that regulate which language is to be used in particular situations.4) Social categories◇People are categorized according to many socially relevant dimensions: age, sex, ethnicity, education level, occupation, and economic status. Such categorization often influences what experiences they have, how they are perceived, and what is expected of them.◇Age is a biological and social factor in SLA. Younger L2 learners are more likely to acquire the language in naturalistic setting and to use the L2 in highly contextualized face-to-face situations rather than decontextualized academic ones, or ones which initially involve reading and writing.◇Sex : Girls may be disadvantaged in early social interaction because of culture.Different learning conditions: 1.female students who enroll in study-abroad programs 2.there are more restrictions on unsupervised activities for females 3.female students tend to avoid situations in which they might encounter sexual harassment.◇Ethnic category : Socially constructed attitudes from within native and target communities as a result of historic or current intergroup relations related to social boundaries and identities. These attitudes determine to a significant degree what input L2 learners will be exposed to and make use of, as well as the nature of their interaction with native speakers and other learners of the target language5) Circumstances of learning◇FD styles appear to be related to the more cooperative settings (of rural residence) FD seems to be related to lower economic categories◇FI to more competitive urban circumstances; and FI to more affluent.◇Informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settings where people contact—andneed to interact with—speakers of another language. This can be because they live in a multilingual society, their circle of family and friends is multilingual, and/or their lifestyle involves international travel and residence for business or pleasure.◇ Formal instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions that are established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.◇additive bilingualism: Where members of a dominant group learn the language of a subordinate group without threat to their l1 competence or to their ethnic identity.◇subtractive bilingualism: Where members of a subordinate group learn the dominant language as l2 and are more likely to experience some loss of ethnic identity and attrition of l1 skills-especially if they are children.The relationship of knowledge among domains of content, context, culture, language form and structure, and language use is dynamic, interactive, and constitutive. It would be a mistake to think of language use merely as the product of the other domains, since use plays an essential role in their very creation, maintenance, and change.◇ pragmatic competence: defined as what people must know in order to interpret and convey meaning within communicative situations◇ Academic competence would include the knowledge needed by learners who want to use the L2 primarily to learn other subjects, or as a tool in scholarly research, or as a medium in a specific professional or occupational field.◇Interpersonal competence encompasses knowledge required of learners who plan to use the L2 primarily in face-to-face contact with other speakers.⏹V ocabulary (lexicon)⏹M orphology (word structure)⏹P honology (sound system)⏹S yntax (grammar)⏹D iscourse (ways to connect sentences and organize information)3.Vocubulary:1 a core of high-frequency words in a language that everyone needs to learn,2 Interpersonal situations can be subdivided into affective (interactional) andtask-oriented (transactional).3 Besides individual vocabulary items (single words and compounds), other lexicalelements which vary in frequency by domain include idioms, metaphors, and othermultiple word combinations that commonly occur together (collocations).Types of knowledge to effective use of context for vocabulary :1 linguistic knowledge:2 world knowledge:3 strategic knowledge:4 Morphology: L2 learning at the level of morphology (or word structure) can be veryimportant for vocabulary development as well as for achieving grammaticalaccuracy1 Compound: e.g. wind+shield2 Derivational morphology: change meaning: e.g.unkind, change part ofspeech: e.g. friend+ly3 Inflectional morphology (or inflections): e.g. kick+ed, book+s5 Phonology: Transfer from L1 to L2 phonology occurs in both perception andproduction, and is thus a factor in both listening and speaking.Particularly at early stages of acquisition, L2 learners are likely to perceiveL2 pronunciation in terms of the L1 phonemic categories which have alreadybeen established.Aspects of the sound systems are likely to differ for L1 and L2:(1) Which speech sounds are meaningful components of the phonological system (phonemes)(2) Possible sequences of consonants and vowels (phonotactics)(3) Which speech sounds can and cannot occur in combination with one another, in which syllable and word positions(4) Intonation patterns (stress, pitch, and duration)(5) Rhythmic patterns (pauses and stops)6 Syntax:Depending on the theoretical linguistic perspective one takes, acquiring the syntax ofanother language may be seen as an issue of internalizing new construction patterns,generative rules, different parameters for innate principles, or collocationalprobabilities and constraints.Steps: 1 realizing that certain aspects of language are universal, but how they are expressedof1 At2features that are characteristics of particular genres, and of interactional strategiesbetweenCohesion devices link one element of discourse to another, integrating them into a unified text. They include many of the sequential indicators and logical connectors, but also such ties as pronominal and lexical reference, substitution, and ellipsis.Genre：Both academic and interpersonal domains involve conventionalized categories and types of discourse, called genres.8 . Receptive activities◇Bottom-up processing：requires prior knowledge of the language system.◇Top-down processing：can compensate for linguistic limitations to some extent byallowing learners to guess the meaning of words they havenot encountered before, and to make some sense out of largerchunks of written or oral text9. Receptive activities (reading)：(1)Automatic recognition ability;(2)Vocabulary and structural Knowledge;(3)Formal discourse structure knowledge;(4)Content/world background knowledge;(5)Synthesis and evaluation processes/strategies(6)Metacognitive knowledge and comprehension monitoring.Purposeful academic reading in order of their likely difficulty for L2 learners：(from least to more difficult)(1)Reading to find information;(2)Reading for general understanding;(3)Reading to learn;(4)Reading for critique and evaluate.Academic reading1A large recognition vocabulary of both basic and subject-specific;2 Complex sentence structures;3 Organization features at the sentence level which identify elements that are infocus and distinguish old and new information;4 Organization features at the discourse level, such as how texts are structuredand how information is organized (Grabe, 2002).10 . Receptive activities (listening)Important: 1 Listening tasks: a continuum from reciprocal (like face-to-face interpersonal communication) to non-reciprocal (like listening to radio or TV news broadcasts).2Another way of classification: general listening (get the general gist of the message), selective listening (perception and comprehension of important 3The theory of SLA commonly used to account for listening phenomena is Information Processing (Input Central Processing).Beginning L2 listeningWhat can make auditory input easier for learners:(1)They know in advance what the speaker is going to be talking about;(2)Key words and phrases are learned as recognition vocabulary elements before they areencountered in connected speech;(3)Speakers pause frequently at boundaries between parts of sentences.(4)Auditory messages are supported by visual images (including writing);(5)The communicative situation is a reciprocal one that allows the listen to seek repetitionand clarification, or to ask the speaker to slow down.Interference for beginning L2 listening:(1) Poor signal quality (such as static or sound distortion);(2) Background noise;(3) Any distraction of the listener’s attention;(4) Affective features such as anxietySpeaker pronunciation is also a factor that influences listener comprehension.Academic listening1 Academic listening requires much of the same L2 linguistic knowledge as listed foracademic reading. But also: process pronunciation by speakers of different native and nonnative varieties of the language.2 Tape-recording lectures and other relatively non-reciprocal listening activities is usefulfor advanced as well as beginning students in such contexts, both for “ear-tuning”and for content review.3 Extensive exposure to oral, academic text is necessary or academic listeningproficiency.4 Without continuing L2 oral input, listening proficiency can usually not be maintained ata high level.11 Productive activities (writing)Important：1 Writing is the most important activity for L2 learners to develop if they will use the language for academic purposes, or in certain types of service functions.4Functions of L2 writing may also include: composing informal letters and e-mail.5Besides, writing can be very important because of how it may contribute to successful L2 learning. In the discussion of Information Processing, we seethat meaningful language output facilitates SLA in many ways, which include: Beginning L2 writing：1 A different orthographic system requires the L2 learners to learn symbols forencoding the target language.2Content knowledge is not language-specific and may be accessed even when knowledge of L2 linguistic elements is very limited.3Advantages and disadvantages of Controlled and Free writing.Academic writing：1Effective academic writing requires: (1) knowledge of linguistic elements; (2)。