四、名词解释：1)Parole话语：①it refers to the realization of langue in actual use.②it is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.③it is concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events.④it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2)Applied linguistics应用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often beapplied to the solution of such practical problems as recovery of speech ability.The study of such applications is known as applied linguistics.3)Reference（所指）语义: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4)Illocutionary act言外行为：the act of expressing the speaker’s intention,it is th eact preformed in saying something.5)Regional dialect地域方言：it is a linguistic variety used by people living in thesame geographical region. It has been found that regional dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers and swamps.6)LAD(Language Acquisition Device)语言习得机制：It was described as animaginary "black box" existing somewhere in the human brain.7)CA（Contrastive Analysis）对比分析：starting with describing comparablefeatures of the native language and the target language, CA compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter.8)Neurolinguistics（神经语言学）：it is the study of two related areas：languagedisorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.9)Predication analysis述谓结构分析：①It is proposed by the British Linguist G.Leech.②The basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.③This applies to all forms of a sentence.④ A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.10)Cross-cultural communication(intercultural communication)跨文化交流：itis communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.11)Cross-association互相联想：In English we sometimes may come across wordswhich are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two leads to confusion. Such interference is often referred as cross-association.12)CPH（Critical Period Hypothesis）临界期假说：a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.①The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.②The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)13) Prescriptive（grammer）规定语法：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard " behaviour in using language to ell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.14) Performance语言运用；言语行为：the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication .15)Duality双重性(double articulation)：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower or basic level is of sounds, which are meaningless. The higher level can be meaningful.五、问答题：Chapter 11.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientificstudy of language?Linguistics studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts,which are found to display some similarities ,and generalizations are made about them,then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure .But the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.6. How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyThey are similar in two aspects: the definition and the content of study.On one hand, Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community, and parole as the realization of langue in actual use.Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. We can see that langue and competence both refer to the abstract issue, conventions and knowledge, and parole and performance both are their actual realization, the concrete use.On the other hand, in Saussure’s opinion, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole as parole is too varied and confusing. And this is the same as Chomsky. He thinkslinguists should study t he ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockettto show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1)Arbitrariness:this means that there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language.2)Productivity:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals of its users.3)Duality:language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. Atthe lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) Displacement: Language can be use to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past ,present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission:Language is passed on from one generation to next through teachingand learning rather than by instinct.Chapter 23.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound [l]8.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?① A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].② A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].③Allophone—the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentsPhone is different from phoneme,The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/1.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1)The naming theory命名论was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Thelinguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things. The semantic relationship holding between words and things is the relationship of naming.2)The conceptualist view概念论: This view holds that there is no direct link between alinguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards:3)Contextualism语境论: Representatively proposed by the British linguist J. R. Firthwho had been influenced by the Polish anthropologist Malinowski and the German philosopher Wittgenstein.It holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context-elements closely linked with language behavior. …the meaning of a word is its use in the language.4)Behaviourism行为主义论: Based on contextualist view by Bloomfield who drew onbehaviorist psychology in defining “meaning”.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language from as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.6.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:"You have left the door wide open."The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”, “door”,“open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity数量原则E.g. A: When is Susan's farewell party?B: Sometimes next month.It is flouting the maxim of quantity(2) The maxim of quality质量原则E.g. A: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?B: I'm afraid I have got a class on Sunday.(3) The maxim of relation相关原则E.g. A: How did the math exam go today, Tom?B: We had a basketball match with the other class.(4) The maxim of manner方式准则E.g. A: Shall we got something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Chapter92.What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? Give examples or proof to support your point of view.Sapir-Whorf believe that language filters people's perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. There are mainly two different interpretations about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influences the later.I agree with the weak one. Here is an example, the word snow. For Eskimo snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and simple word snow usually suffices the need. When some needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs: “corn snow”, “fine powder snow”, and “drifting snow”.Chapter102.Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.1)Behaviourist view---language is behavior ,language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.In this theory,imitation and practice are preliminary(开始),discrimination （识别）and generalizaition are key to language development.2)An innatist (语法天生主义者)view----In the human brain, there is an imaginary “black box”called Language acquisition device which is said to contain principles that are universal to all language.Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular ter Chomsky prefer this innate endowment as UG and hold that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language make use of these principles and the variations in those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.3) An interactionist(互动主义者)view----language develops as a result of the complex interplay,between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which child develops.In a word,Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects,the innatist accounts most reasonable in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Chapter111、To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experience?(please list your own experience.)The studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and pratical levels. Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. Just as Littlewood summarizes, the first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and undrerstanding new facts about second language learning.2.Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusion can you reach about the role of Chinese in your English learning? On what occasions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English? Chinese plays an inseparable role in our English learning and people can't afford to ignore it. Hence, the role of Chinese in our English learning is worth careful examination. In addition, English learning have been influnenced by Chinese learning at both theoretical and practical levels.(1)Theoretically, the new findings and advanced in Chinese acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminate (helping) in understanding English acquisition.(2)The techniques used to collect and analyze data in Chinese learning also provides insights and perspectives in the study of English learning.Occasion: Recent studies have discovered that there are three interacting factors in determining language transfer in second language learning:1)a learner's psychology, how a learner organizes his or her native language;2)a learner's perception of native-target language distance,3)a learner's actual knowledge of the target language.。