中西方餐桌礼仪的文化差异CULTURAL DIFFERENCES OF TABLE MANNERS BETWEEN EAST AND WESTAbstract and Key WordsAbstract:Table manners are the rules of etiquette used while eating. Different cultures observe different rules for table manners. This article has some contrastive analysis and research onthe cultural differences of table manners between East and West from the point of view onsense of arriving time, seat arrangement, order of serving dishes, tableware, b ehaviourand communication. It is concluded that with the wide spreading of interculturalcommunication people in East and West are deeply transformed，permeated and accepted toone another. They come to respect and tolerate different table manners, thus are evenassimilative and syncretize with each other.Key words: table manners; cultural differences; syncretism摘要：餐桌礼仪是用餐时的礼仪规则。

不同的文化遵循不同的餐桌礼仪规则。

本文从时间观念、座次安排、上菜顺序、餐具、行为和语言几个方面对中西方餐桌礼仪的文化差异做出对比分析，并由此得出结论，随着跨文化交际活动越来越广泛，中西方人经历了深刻的转变，从相互渗透到彼此接受，人们逐渐能够尊重和容忍不同文化的餐桌礼仪，甚至趋于同化和融合。

关键词：餐桌礼仪；文化差异；融合CONTENTS1. Introduction (1)2. Literature Review (1)3. Cultural Differences of Table Manners (2)3.1 Sense of Arriving Time3.2 Seat Arrangement3.3 Order of Serving Dishes3.4 Tableware3.5 Behaviour and Communication4. Main Factors Causing the Differences (6)4.1 Geography4.2 Tradition4.3 Custom5. Trend of Syncretism (7)6. Conclusion (9)Bibliography (9)Acknowledgements (10)Cultural Differences of Table Manners betweenEast and West1. IntroductionWith the rapid development of economy and culture, having meals is not only for the basic physical satisfaction, but also the important skill in social communication. Striving for civic virtues and having good manners have become increasingly common understanding of the public.In China, which has been a nation of etiquette and particular about food being the first necessity of the people since antiquity, table manners has a long history and has naturally become an important part of dining culture. With the deepening of open policy in our country and the strengthening of communication between East and West, people have more and more opportunities to cooperate with foreigners. Naturally, Chinese cannot avoid having dinners with foreigners. A series of table manners including sense of arriving time, seat arrangement, order of serving dishes, tableware, behaviour and communication reflect different culture and life-style in nations or countries. There are many differences of table manners between eastern and western countries.To understand these differences can not only avoid committing a breach of etiquette to each other, but also promote the development of humanity culture in both countries and achieve interpersonal harmony in cross-cultural communication.2. Literature ReviewAs we all know, different countries have different cultures. Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another (Hofstede, 1991). As a kind of social customs, table manners are influenced by culture and vary in different areas. China, known as civilized ancient country, has characteristic table manners with a long history. Western countries also formed their own table manners during the syncretism of nations and modernization. To a certain degree, having good table manners is a symbol of a nation's civilization and an expression of a person's moral cultivation and accomplishment level as well.With the deepen of open policy in our country and the strengthen of communication between East and West, it is necessary for us to improve the consciousness of cross-cultural communication and know the differences of table manners, such as sense of arriving time, seat arrangement, order of serving dishes, tableware, behaviour, communication and so on. The fully understanding of thedifferences can prevent the failure in politeness and promote personal status on the dinner table. Only if we realize cultural connotation of table manners and the differences between East and West, can we talk and behave decently in cross-cultural communication and make social communication harmonious.With an acute eye and an irrepressible wit, Margaret Visser takes a fascinating look at the way we eat our meals in the book The Rituals of Dinner. From the ancient Greeks to modern yuppies, from cannibalism and the taking of the Eucharist to formal dinners and picnics, she thoroughly defines the eating ritual. She takes the different table manners in different areas and races to show the development of the world civilization. In the book Culture on Dinner Table, Mr. Yi Zhongtian (2004) says that the core thought of Chinese culture is group consciousness while the western core thought is individual consciousness. Westerners order respective dishes by themselves rather than ask others for what they want. On the contrary, Chinese agrees that personal will should obey group common thought. In the book Differences and Syncretize of Etiquette Culture between East and West, Mr. Li Xiaojun explores the syncretism of etiquette culture between East and West on the basis of table manners to achieve the harmonious society. Yu Lin and Zhou You compare the cultural differences between East and West from the point of view on tableware, seat arrangement, dinner atmosphere and language. It aims at warning people to treat exotic culture with an objective, tolerant and respectful attitude while insisting on their own culture, in order to communicate properly and appropriately in cross-cultural communication.3.Cultural Differences of Table Manners3.1 Sense of Arriving TimeHall has classified two kinds of people according to his observation. One is monochromic time and the other is polychromic time (Edward Hall, 1976:17). People from western countries hold monochromic time assuming time is linear and can be cut, so they pay much more attention to timetables and pre-arrangements. They are slaves to nothing but the clock, and time is treated as if it were something almost precious. While people from eastern countries insist on polychromic time, having no ideas of fixed timetable. Therefore, this difference is more obvious when attending a banquet.Generally speaking, Chinese people which holding polychromic time tend to be later to show up. They often arrive half an hour later than the prescribed time and the host also seems to have prepares for that. They always arrange some other programs for guests while waiting, such as playing cards, drinking tea or chatting, so that the guests who come earlier would not feel boring. Both the host and guests are used to this phenomenon and they do not regard this as a contempt or impolite behavior tothe host. While in western countries, people do things strictly abide by the schedule and all the activities begins according to the predetermined time. People should arrive at the party on time especially the formal banquets. It is considered as impolite and contempt for the host and other guests if one arrives 10 minutes later.3.2 Seat ArrangementThe seating arrangement is probably the most important part of Chinese table manners. The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. If the guest of honor is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. And i f he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. If it is a round table, then the one facing the entrance door is the guest of honor. The seats on the left hand are in turn second, fourth and sixth, etc, while those on the right hand are in turn third, fifth and seventh, etc, until they join together. In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If it is an Eight Immortals table and there is a seat facing the entrance door, then the right seat facing the entrance door is for the guest of honor. If there is no seat facing the entrance door, then the right seat facing the east is the seat of honor. Then the seats on the left side of the seat of honor are the second, fourth, sixth and eighth and those on the right side are the third, the fifth and the seventh.While in western countries, after the hostess announced dinner ready, male host will lead guests to the table in turn, and the hostess walks behind them. Some attentive host will also place name card on the table to show the seat. If there has no arrangement, the general principle for seat arrangement is that men and women sit separately. Men guests of honour take the prior seats which on the right hand of hostess while women guests of honour seat on the right hand of him, and the other couples sit in diagonal respectively. Men and women sitting separately shows the open and lively of the American banquet. It can promote the familiarity between each other and make the dining topic diversification and dining atmosphere peaceful. The principle for the seat arrangement is that the guest takes the seat first, the elderly prior to young people, the married prior to unmarried and stranger prior to the acquaintance and families.3.3 Order of Serving DishesIn China, many dishes have symbolic connotations, representing everything from wealth to a longlife and the order of serving dishes shows Chinese characteristics. A Chinese meal begins with appetizers which are accompanied by beverage and wine. There are usually four or five of these appetizers, including cold meats, preserved eggs, smoked fish and vegetable relishes, all beautifully arranged either on separate dishes or on one large platter. Hot dishes that were boiled or poached are usually served first, followed by foods that were fried, such as stir-fried chicken and stir-fried shrimp, which are omitted most of the time. Hot food should be served from the left of the opposite seats of guests of honour. When serving the whole duck, chicken and fish, the head and tail can not be put toward the major seat. After the hot dishes, then comes the main course, rice, which is China's staple food. While in a feast or banquet, people always eat little because of the abundant of the food. At last, desserts and fruits are provided to help digestion. If there are lots of tables on the banquet, every dish should be served simultaneously. These programs can not only make the whole process in harmony and order, but also make host and guests expression and communication well. Therefore, the table manners can make the dinner perfect and make host and guests both cultivation fully display.In western countries, the first dish is also appetizer which with distinctive flavor. It is always with salty and acid taste and small quantity but high quality. The second dish is soup, which very different from China. The soup can be roughly divided into four categories of clear soup, cream soup, vegetable soup and cold soup. Generally, the third dish is fish dish, also known as side dish, which including many kinds of fish, shellfish and molluscs. As fish is easy to digest, it is served in front of meat dishes. Meat and poultry dishes is the fourth dish, which also known as the main course. The most representative is beef and steak. Vegetable dishes, called salad in western, can be arranged either after or with the meat dish, so it can be a kind of side dish. The six dish is dessert, which including all the food after the main course in a sense, such as pudding, ice cream, cheese, fruit and so on. The final is beverage that often includes coffee with cream or tea with sugar.3.4 TablewareOf course, the main difference on the dinner table between East and West is the different tablewares. Chopsticks, which have a long history, are the most important tableware in China. The tradition of using chopsticks as tableware was introduced to many other countries in the world. The invention of chopsticks reflects the wisdom of Chinese ancient people. A pair of chopsticks, though they look simple, can nip, pick, rip and stir food. When having a meal, chopsticks should be put tidily on the right of the bowl. When finishing a meal, they should be put vertically on the mid-line of the bowl. Spoon is mainly used to drink soup or take quite small food. Do not get too full when using the spoon to get food, lest overflow make the table and clothes dirty. Plate is mainly used to fill the food, according the amount and shape of food it served. The plate that slight small should be put on the leftof bowl to temporarily put food taken from the public dishes. Food wastes and bone should be put in the front of the small plate with chopsticks instead of directly spitting into it.Generally speaking, people do not use much tablewares when having meals in China. Chinese people mainly use bowl, chopsticks and spoons. While in serving English meals, they use so much tablewares with different kinds and sizes. For example, there are different kinds of glasses in English, such as wine glass, cherry glass, brandy glass, beer glass, snifter glass, champion flute and high bowl. The use of tableware also shows different food culture in different countries. The main tablewares in western are knives, forks, spoons, glass and napkin. To start with, the fork is on the left side of the plate and the knife is on the right side. The knife which used to cut food into small pieces should be hold in the right hand. The fork and spoon can be placed either on the left or right hand of the table with the plate in the middle, depending on the person's preference on using the tableware. In general, the spoon is usually for soup.When using the spoon, start from the one closest to the bowl which closest to you and ladle out soup then sip from the spoon. If no soup is being served then it's meant for dessert. If you are right handed, then the knife goes into your right hand, fork in your left hand, and using the knife for cutting and eating with the fork. Some people refer to cut their meat or other items on their place into small pieces all at once and then just use their fork in their right hand and in most instances this is still considered good table manners.3.5 Behaviour and CommunicationChinese people talked a lot and enjoy the delicious food when on the dinner table, which can reflect the hospitality and sincere of hostess. The lively atmosphere on the dinner table reflects the cheerful of guests, and it can reflect the warmth of family, the peace of neighbourhood and unite of the whole nation in a sense. While in western, people talked little and cut their own food in the plate quietly. They should not make any sounds when drinking and eating. If the soup is hot, they should wait instead of blowing with mouth.When Chinese invited guests to have dinner, there are so many dishes on the table, at least seven dishes. But host will say “There are not so much food for you all.”“The dish does not cook well.” and similar words. If the host asks “Would you like some more?”, then the guest may answer “No, thank you. I am full.”even if he is not full. After the host ask for many times, they maybe accept with embarrassment and little shameful. While in western, a dinner generally has four or five dishes and the host will simply say “Help yourself, please”. When the host asks “Would you like another piece of meat pie?”, you can answer directly “Yes, please.” or “Thank you, a piece of meat pie.” if you are not full. During the dinner, guests can praise the host such as “It is delicious.” or “This meat is beautifully tender.” to make host happy. Chinese followed the principle that belittle themselves and respect others. While westerners emphasize efficiency and pragmatism values and pay much attention to saving faceand keeping their prestige.4. Main Factors Causing the Differences4.1 GeographyAs we all know, different areas have different culture and custom. Because of the different location, natural conditions and geographical environment, different areas formed different regional culture which shows in that different nationalities using different language expression forms for the same kind of phenomenon or things. The geographical location and the environment lead to the differences between Chinese and western cultures. China is a big country with a vast territory ab ounding in natural resources, and the people’s way of life, customs, economic and cultural development, as well as general local conditions, all vary.For example, Chopsticks and, knife and fork is the most basic differences between Chinese and western table manners. You Xiuling, the professor of Zhejiang University, said that east and west appear different tablewares are related to the environment. Chopsticks should be originated in the place of lots of bamboo. There are much wood in north China and much bamboo in south China. So ancestors use local materials to make chopsticks and they became China's most primitive raw materials of chopsticks. The emergence of knife and fork is much later than that of chopsticks. According to the research of professor You Xiuling, the origin of knife and fork is related to the life habit of ancient European nomads, who always took knife along them and live on horseback. They cut down and eat meat as soon as it cooked. From then on, westerners use knife and fork as their tablewares.4.2 TraditionThe different ethnic and national historical development process may result in different history and tradition. Thousands of years of Chinese traditional culture reflected in the Chinese Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. As the core of Chinese traditional culture, Confucianism produces a profound and long influence on Chinese society. Confucianism has the traditional thought mainly emphasized “benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, faith”. Taoists advocated “accustomization nature”, “pure”and he Buddhist is advocated “merciful Purdue beings”and “harmony”, “continued”. In the book Culture on Dinner Table, Mr. Yi Zhongtian said that the core thought of Chinese culture is group consciousness while the western core thought is individual consciousness. In sharp contrast, the western culture is a kind of “guilt”culture. They believe in god created man. The western culture, to be self-centered, the boundary between people is clear and they do not allow mutual interference. This individual culture contributed to western table manners without sharing a plate of food. But Chinese love peace and quiet life in the forest, and in the dining room use cheap chopsticks as tableware. Thechopsticks can also reflect Chinese collective consciousness. Westerners prefer to colonize in restaurants, use a knife and fork in the class. Knife and fork also can reflect individual consciousness, and noble west of life.From the use of chopsticks we can see the whole course of using chopsticks is collaborative work. If one of them is absent, the whole work cannot be completed. It shows that collectivism is the core thought of Chinese nation. And knife and fork is born in modern industrial society, which is the production of socialization. Its main material is metal which shows social function of modern society, and failed to get rid of its offensive during socialization process.4.3 CustomCustom culture refers to the culture that formed in the daily social life and human communication activity by ethnic and habits. The differences of custom between east and west are various. Different nationalities show different ethnic culture and custom on many aspects such as greeting, thanks, flattery, apology, or making telephone calls. For example, when Chinese meet acquaintance, they always greet each other by asking “have you eaten”or “where are you going”. While in western culture, it does not belong to the greeting but a real problem. They may think “why does he ask me whether I have eaten”“does he want to invite me to have dinner”. When Chinese invited guests to have dinner, there are so many dishes on the table, but host says repeatedly “there is nothing for you”“have a potluck” and similar words. The host also helps pick food for guests and try his best to make guests eat and drink more. Westerner often doubted about this phenomenon. It is not realistic behaviour that host said there is nothing when there are so many dishes on the table. And their meal is very simple which often with a small number of delicious vegetables when they treat others. Host just says “help yourself” and they never carry food to guest's bowl.5. Trend of SyncretismAs a country that pays great attention to courtesy, the cuisine culture is deep rooted in Chinese history. In either a Chinese home or restaurant, it is easy to find that table manners are essential. And the distinctive courtesies displayed will invariably add to the enjoyment of meals and keep people in high spirits. It is really an admirable custom to respect others at the table, including the aged, teachers and guests while taking good care of children. Chinese people stress filial piety all the time. The practice of presenting the best or fine food first to the senior members of the family has been observed for countless generations. In ancient times the common people led a needy life but they still tried their best to support the elder mother or father who took it for granted. Although the hosts in China are all friendly and hospitable, we should also show them respect. Before starting to eat dinner, the host mayoffer some words of greeting. Guests should not start to eat until the host says, 'Please enjoy yourself' or something like that, otherwise it suggests disrespect and causes displeasure. When hosts place dishes on the table, they will arrange the main courses at the center with the supporting dishes evenly placed around them. When the main dishes are prepared in a decorative form either by cut or other means they will be placed facing the major guests and elder people at the table, which also embodies virtue. Westerners have gradually accepted Chinese sentimental thought. And Chinese food has always been very popular in America. Many Americans grew up frequently eating lunches with dishes like wonton soup, chow mein and fried rice.There are abundant and extensive table manners forming in the east, while there are exquisite and distinctive table manners forming in the west. Nowadays, the trend of syncretism of table manners between east and west is mainly reflected in Chinese learning from westerners. More and more western restaurants appear in many cities in China and more and more people like to have meals in it. People have learned western table manners gradually in daily life. It is obvious that the Chinese diet conception is sensible, western diet idea is rational. This difference seems to become blurred with the strengthening of communication between East and West and the development of science. Like westerners, instead of paying attention to the color, flavour and taste of the food, Chinese people pay more attention to its health and nutrition. We should learn from western manners not only learn its form but also adopt its inner spirit. Only in this way can we build up our confidence and superiority and establish our appeal. And western style food, which was introduced into our country several hundred years ago, has grown up to be a vital new force on the Chinese food and beverage market. The dissemination and development of western style food in China has unavoidably exerted great influence on Chinese food and beverage industry and made Chinese style food trade change in the aspects of managing concept, management mode, productive means, personnel cultivation and so on.6. ConclusionTable manners reflect many differences between east and west, whether on sense of arriving time, seat arrangement, order of serving dishes, tableware or behaviour and language. Knowing the differences people can easily understand the culture of each other. In face of these differences, we should comprehend and respect their habits and culture and should remember that every culture is equal and there is no one prior to the other. Thus we can decently communicate with each other. 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