《简明英语语言学》笔记Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?●Definition: the scientific study of language.● A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation;that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.●The scope of linguistics:✧General linguistics: study language as a whole✧Specific aspects:1)Phonetics: the study of sounds2)Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3)Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4)Syntax: study the rules of how to form grammatically correct sentence5)Semantics: the study of meaning6)Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language use✧Interdisciplinary branches:1)Sociolinguistics2)Psycholinguistics3)Applied linguistics●Important distinctions✧Prescriptive and descriptive:1)Descriptive: Describe and analyze the language that people actuallyuse2)Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior inusing language3)Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which isscientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be itcorrect or not.✧Synchronic and diachronic1)Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, al-ways in its current existence.2)Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; itstudies the historical development of language over a period of time.3)In modern linguistics, synchronic approach enjoys priority.✧Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and revealsmore true feature of language.✧Langue and parole1)Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language com-munity; it is the set of conventions and rules that language users haveabide by2)Parole: Concrete use of language.3)Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2)linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regu-larities governing the actual use of language✧Competence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1)Competence: knowledge of rules of language2)Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic commu-nication3)The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychologicalfactors.✧Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1)Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2)Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3)Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-basedframework.What is language?●Definition of language✧Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.1)Language is a system, which means elements of language are com-bined according to rules.2)Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3)Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language issound.4)Language is human-specific.●Design feature1)Arbitrariness: logical connection between meaning and sounds.While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words,such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g.photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage ofvocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistica-tion of language and make it possible for language to have an unlim-ited source of expressions.2)Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makespossible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its us-ers.3)Duality: basic level: a structure of soundsHigher level: sounds of language can be rearranged intomorphemes and words4)Displacement: 不受时空限制的5)Cultural transmission: human have to be learned and taught beacquire language.●Functions of language✧Descriptive function: convey factual informationExpressive function: supplies informationSocial function: maintain social relations between people✧Structural linguist Roman JakobsonAddresser---emotive: addresser express his attitude towards thetopic or situationAddressee---conative: the addresser aims to influence addressee’sactionContext---referential: addresser conveys a message or informationMessage---poetic: use language to display the beauty of languageContact---phatic communication: it tries to establish or maintain in-terpersonal relationsCode---metalinguistic: make clear the meaning of language itself✧In early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday7 function in children.3 in adults:Ideational function: organize one’s experience, attitude, evaluation,feeling, and emotionsInterpersonal function: establish and maintain interpersonal rela-tionsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particularsituation in which they are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of language✧Limited range of sounds constitute the phonic medium of language.✧The individual sounds within the range are the speech sounds.Phonetics●What is phonetics?✧Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s languages.✧Articu latory phonetics: studies the sounds form speaker’s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate thesoundsAuditory phonetics: studies from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. howthe sounds are perceived by the hearerAcoustic phonetics: the way sounds travel by looking at the soundswaves.Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is it?●Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sen-tences.Words categories●In traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditionalcategories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).●Two division✧Major lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, ad-jective, preposition.✧Minor lexical categories: determiner限定词, degree words, qualifier限定语, aux-iliary, conjunction.●Criteria：✧Meaning: 1) nouns often designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation,and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives,those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies: 1) some words do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) words with same or similar meaning belongs to different catego-ries, e.g. be aware of a nd know✧Inflection: 1) noun → -s or –es indicating plural2)adjectives→-er or –est indicating comparative degree and superla-tive degree3)verb→-ing and –ed indicating progressive and past tenseDeficiency: some words do not take inflections✧Distribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur withcertain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structure●XP ruleXP→Specifier ——head—— complementNP→(Det) N (PP) …VP→(Qual) V (NP) …AP→(Deg) A (PP) …PP→(Deg) P (NP) …●Coordination rule✧No limit on the number of coordinated categories prior to the conjunction.✧ A category at any level (head or XP) can be coordinated.✧Coordinated categories must be of the same type.✧The category type of coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of elementsbeing conjoined.✧Structure: X→X, X, X…Con XPhrase elements:●Specifiers✧Role：1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically,mark the phrase boundary.●✧Provide information and location, attached to right of the head✧Monotransitive: open the doorDitransitive: send me the mailComlex transitive verbs: put it on the wall✧Complement clauseMiss Herbert believes that she will win.Matrix clause complementizer complement clause✧CP complement●Modifiers✧To modifier nouns →adj. phrases✧To modifier verbs →adv. Phrases and prepositional phrasesPosition of modifiersModifiers Positions ExamplesAP PP AdvP Precedes the headFollow the headPrecedes or followA very careful girlOpen with careRead carefully; carefully readSentences (the S rule)Inflp= (s)NP Inlf VP。