Revision Contents:Unit 1 Language and Learning1. What are the major views of language? What are their implications to language teaching or learning?Structural View: It sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystem: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentence. Each language has a finite number of such structural items.To learn a language means to learn these structural items so as to be able to understand and produce language.Teaching methods based on this view:the Audio-lingual methodTotal Physical Responsethe Oral ApproachSituational Language Teaching.Audiolingual approach: The teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.The principal features of audiolingualism are an emphasis on structures in the language which can be learned as regular patterns ofverbal behavior and the belief that learning is a process of habit formation.Functional View: It sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things. Most of our day-to- day language use involves functional activities: offering , suggesting , advising, apologizing, etc. Therefore, learners learn a language in order to do things with it. To perform functions, learners need to know how to combine the grammatical rules and the vocabulary to express notions that perform the functions.Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: communicative approachesInteractional View: It considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people. Therefore, learners not only need to know the grammar and vocabulary of the language, but also need to know the rules for using them in a whole range of communicative context.Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction; communicative approaches.were immediately praised. This method is still used in many parts of the world today.Cognitive theoryIt seems to be largely the result of Noam Chomsky’s reaction to Skinner’s behavioural theory, which led to the revival of structural linguistics.The key point of Chomsky’s theory is reflected in his most famous question: if language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before.One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.Constructivist theory--- represented by John DeweyLearning is a complex cognitive process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his or her own experiences and what he /she already knows.Implications for classroom teachingTeaching should be built based on what learners already know and engage learners in learning activities.It is believed that education is used to develop the mind, not just to rotate or recall what is learned.Teachers need to design activities to interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners.Teachers must balance an understanding of the habits, characteristics as well as personalities of individual learners with an understanding of the means of arousing learners’ interest and curiosity for learning.Socio-constructivist theory ----represented by VygotskyIt emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’(ZPD) and scaffolding.Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners. With the teacher’s scaffolding through questions and explanations, or with a more capable peers’ support, the learner can move to a higher level of understanding and extend his / her skills and knowledge to the fullest potential.3. Socio-constructivist theory of language learning emphasizestext or conversation and the ability to understand them (ability to express or to understand a topic logically and coherently by effectively employing or comprehending the cohesive markers used in the discourse /ability to initiate, develop, enter, interrupt, check, or confirm in a conversation) Strategic competence--- strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resourcesFluency---- one’s ability to ‘link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitation Implications for teaching and learning:Linguistic competenceTeachers need to help learners----achieve accuracy in the grammatical forms of the language;----pronounce the forms accurately;----use stress, rhythm, and intonation to express meaning;----build a range of vocabulary;----learn the script and spelling rules;----achieve accuracy in syntax and word formation.Pragmatic competenceTeachers need to help learners---learn the relationship between grammatical forms and functions;---use stress and intonation to express attitude and emotion;---learn the scale of formality;---understand and use emotive tone;---use the grammatical rules of language;---select language forms appropriate to topic, listener, or setting, etc.Discourse competenceTeachers need to help learners----take longer turns, use discourse markers and open and close conversations;----appreciate and be able to produce contextualised written texts in a variety of genres;----be able to use cohesive devices in reading and writing texts;----be able to cope with authentic texts.Strategic competenceTeachers need to enable learners----to take risks in using the language;----to use a range of communicative strategies;----to learn the language needed to engage in some of these strategies, e.g. ‘What do you call a thing that/person who…’FluencyTeachers need to help learners-----deal with the information gap of real discourse;-----process language and respond appropriately with a degree of ease;-----be able to respond with reasonable speed in ‘real time”.3.What is communicative language teaching?Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to Situational Language Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistics, as well as American sociolinguists.The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs.Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.This method is learner-centered and emphasizes communication and real-life situations. The role of the instructor in CLT is quite different from traditional teaching methods. In the traditional classroom, the teacher is in charge and "controls" the learning. In CLT the teacher serves as more of a facilitator, allowing students to be in charge of their own learning.4.Principles in communicative language teachingCommunication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning.Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learning supports the learning process.5.Strong version and week versionA weak version: Learners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it in communication.It regards overt teaching of language forms and functions as necessary means for helping learners to develop the ability to use them for communication.A strong version:Strong version: The strong version claims that ‘language is acquire through communication’. Learners discover the structural system in the process of learning how to communicate.It regards experiences of using the language as the main means or necessary conditions for learning a language as they provide the experience for learners to see how language is used in communication.5. List some of the communicative activities.1) Functional communicative activitiesIdentifying picturesDiscovering identical pairsDiscovering sequence or locationsDiscovering missing informationDiscovering missing featuresDiscovering “secrets”Communicating patterns and picturesCommunicative modelsDiscovering differencesFollowing directionsReconstructing story-sequencesPooling information to solve a problemSome main features of communicativeactivities (Ellis 1990)Students make use of materials6. No materials control Students work by themselves.5. No teacher interventionStudents are free to use all kinds of language forms and skills, not just certain forms given by teacher.4. Variety of languageConcentrate on what to do and what to say in the activity, not how to say certain forms.3. Content, not formA need to do something 2. Communicative desireA need to know something.---’an information gap’1. Communictive purposeThe six criteria7. The Task-based ApproachA task-based approach sees the language process as one of learning through doing. It stresses teaching with communication-focused teaching.The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes.Task -based Learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn't pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it.So it aims to provide learners with a natural context for language use．As learners work to complete a task，they have abundant opportunity to interact．Such interaction is thought to facilitate language acquisition as learners have to work to understand each other and to express their own meaning．By so doing，they have to check to see if they have comprehended correctly and，at times，they have to seek clarification．By interacting with others，they get to listen to language which may be beyond their present ability，but which may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a later time．Task presented in the form of a problem-solving negotiationbetween knowledge that the learner holds and new knowledge7. What is a task?Any one of the following definitions is ok:A task is “a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child. In other words, by ‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between”.-------- Long (1985)[A task is] an activity which require learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process. ------ Prabhu (1987)… a piece of classroom work which involve learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than on form. ----Nunan (1989) Tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.”A task is an activity in which students use the target language to do3. What is curriculum?A curriculum, however, provides (1) general statements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching, (2) detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose, and (3) implementations of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum.Syllabus is often used to refer to something similar to a language teaching approach, whereas curriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular country or region.4. Designing principles for the National English Curriculum1) Aim for educating all students, and emphasize quality-oriented education.2) Promote learner-centeredness, and respect individual differences.3. Develop competence-based objectives, and allow flexibility and adaptability.4) Pay close attention to the learning process, and advocate experiential learning and participation.5. Attach particular importance to formative assessment, and give special attention to the development of competence.6. Optimize learning resources, and maximize opportunities forLockstep refers to the time when all the students are under the control of the teacher. They are all doing the same activity at the same rhythm and pace. Lockstep is adopted when presenting new language, give explanations, check answers, do accuracy-based reproduction, or summarize learning.Advantages:It reinforces a sense of belonging among a group of members. When students are doing the same activity together, everyone feels being together with others.It is good for teachers to give instruction and explanation together and it is an ideal way to show materials and do presentations together.Disadvantages:Everyone is forced to do the same thing at the same time and at the same pace. Individuality is not favored in this sense.Not everyone has the opportunity to express what they want.Some students feel nervous and anxious when they are asked to present in front of the class.It favors the transmission of knowledge from teacher to students rather than students discovering things by themselves.It is not a good way to enhance real communication. Students cannotcommunicate with each other in this sense.2) pair work: the time when students work in pairs on an exercise or task. It could be a dialogue reading, a game or an information-gap task between two students.Advantages:It dramatically increases students’speaking time in each class.It allows students to work together rather than under the teacher’s guidance.It allows teacher’s time to work with the week pair while others are working on their own.It can promote cooperation between students.It can create a more relaxed and friendly context for students to learn.It is relatively quick and easy to organize.DisadvantagesIt is often very noisy and teachers are afraid of losing control of the class.Some students may talk in native language or something not related to the topic. It is not very easy for teachers to monitor every pair.Some students may not like to work with the peers, and they thinkthey can only learn from the teacher. So they refuse to participate in the activities.The choice of a pair is also a problem. Some students don’t like to work with particular partner while someone may dominate all the time.3) group workGroup work refers to the time when students work in small groups.Advantages:Like pair work, it dramatically increases the amount of talk of individual students.There is always a great chance of different opinions and contributions to the work.It also encourages cooperation and negotiation skills among students.It promotes learner autonomy by allowing students to make their own decision rather than follow the teachers.DisadvantagesLike pair work, it is likely to make the classroom very noisy and some teachers feel very uncomfortable with the noise.Not everyone enjoys the work since many of them prefer to work with teachers rather than peers.Some students may dominate the talk while others may be very passive or even quiet all the time.It is difficult for teacher to organize. It may take a longer time for teachers to group students and there may be not enough space for students to move around in classroom.Some groups may finish the task fast while some may be very slow. So teachers need to prepare the optional activities for the quick group and be ready to help the slower ones all the time.4) individual studyIndividual study is the stage where the students are left to work on their own and at their own speed.Advantages:It allows students free time, style and pace to study on their own.It is less stressful compared with whole class work.It can develop learner autonomy and form good learning habits.It can create some peaceful and quiet time in class.DisadvantagesIt does not help a class to develop a sense of belonging. Students learn by themselves and it does not promote team spirit.It may not be very motivating for students.To stimulate recall of informationTo challenge studentsTo assess learning6. Classification of questionsQuestions have been classified using different criteria, mainly based on the level of thinking involved in answering the questions.Closed v.s open--- Closed questions refer to those with only one single correct answer while open questions may invite many different answers.Display v.s genuine--- Display questions are those that the answers are already known to the teacher and they are used in checking if students know the answers, too. Genuine questions are those which are used to find out new information and more communicative.Lower-ordered v.s high-ordered--- Lower-ordered questions refer to those that simply require recalling of information or memorisation of facts while higher-ordered questions require more reasoning, analysis, and evaluation.7. How to deal with errors?The distinction between mistakes and errors:A mistake: a performance error that is either a random guess or a “slip of tongue/pen”, it is a failure performance to a known system. A mistake has nothing to do with the language competence.An error has direct relation with the learners’ language competence. Errors do not result from carelessness nor hesitation, but lack of knowledge in the target language. Language errors cannot be self-corrected.When to correct：accuracy-based activities；fluency-based activitiesHow to correct：Direct teacher correctionIndirect teacher correctionSelf correctionPeer correctionWhole class correctionSelf-correction is encouraged before teacher correction or peer correction because if it is a mistake, the student himself/herself will be able to correct it.Indirect teacher correction is encouraged rather than direct teacher correction to avoid damaging students’ Self esteem and confidence.what order would you teach and practice the sound? On the line tick the steps that you think are necessary. In the brackets, write the order numbers.Focus only on those sounds which are causing difficulty to the students. The following steps may be helpful in teaching the difficult sounds:1) Say the sound alone, but this may be avoided wherever possible.2) Say the sound in a word.3) Contrast it with other sounds if necessary.4) Write words on the board only when it becomes necessary to make your point clearer.5) Explain how to make the sound when necessary.6) Have students repeat the sound in chorus.7) Have individual students repeat the sound.6. List some methods of practicing sounds.Minimal pairsWhich orderOdd one outCompletionSame or different?Unit 7 Teaching Grammar1. Read the following statements about grammar in English learning and decide if you agree with them or not.1) Students need to be given detailed grammar rules if they want to learn a foreign language successfully.2) Children do not learn grammar rules when they acquire their first language, so they do not need them either when learning a foreign language.3) If students get enough chance to practice using a foreign language, they do not need to learn grammar.4) Making students aware of grammatical information is one of the teaching objectives, allowing students opportunities for using the language is just as important.5) Grammar should be taught to help students to analyze difficult structures in texts.6)Teaching and learning grammar should focus on practice rather than the study of grammar itself.7) Grammar should be taught and practiced in context.8) Knowing grammar is not enough for real communication.an isolated way; Little attention is paid to meaning; The practice is often mechanical.However, the deductive method is not without merits. It could be very successful with selected and motivated students. It could save time when students are confronted with a grammar rule which is complex but which has to be learned. It may help to increase student’ confidence in those examinations which are written with accuracy as the main criterion of success.The inductive methodThe teacher provides learner with authentic language data and induces the learners to realize grammar without any form of explicit explanation. It is believed that the rules will become evident if the students are given enough appropriate examples. After presentation, the students are invited to apply the newly presented structure to produce sentences with given visual aids or verbal prompts. The teacher tries to say nothing except to correct when necessary. Finally, but optionally, the teacher may elicit the grammar rule from the students.It is believed that the rules will become evident if the students are given enough appropriate examples.It is believed that the inductive method is more effective inmodels and drills the new grammarcorrects mistakes (self-correction)uses a variety of controlled practice activities, of increasing difficultymakes students thinkuses exercises in the text bookgoes over any problem areasP3The teacher: lets the students produce the language organises free activities with a clear structure and aims monitors and corrects any mistakes later, with studentsWhich P? （Presentation, practice or production）1) Students write a diary about what they did last week (using the past simple).　Production2) The teacher uses a timeline to show how to use the past continuous.　Presentation3) Students discuss what food they would cook for a foreign friend (using the third conditional).Production4) Students fill in the gaps with the correct form of the present tense.　Practice5) The teacher uses flashcards to elicit the correct form of the passive.　Practice6) The teacher writes example sentences in a substitution table to show how to form the present perfect.　PracticeUnit 8 Teaching Vocabulary1. What does knowing a word involve?1) The form2) How it is pronounced3) How it is spelt4) Denotative meaning5) The connotations that the item may have6) The situations when the word is or is not used7) How the word is related to others8) Collocation or the way that words occur together9) What the affixes may indicate about the meaning? (the prefixesand suffixes)2.Implication for teaching vocabularyWe now understand that knowing a word involves far more than just remembering its pronunciation and translated meaning. As teachers, we need to develop vocabulary learning activities based on our understanding of the lexical system of English to help students learn vocabulary more effectively. The following are some of the implications we can draw: Both denotative and connotative meaning need to be learned;Words are better understood in context;A group of related words is likely to be more memorable than a list of unrelated items, i.e. words learned with synonyms, antonyms or hyponyms;Knowledge of word formation is a useful source for developing vocabulary.Exploring sense relations among/between words help with learning and remembering words.Teachers and learners need to be aware of the difference between receptive and productive vocabulary.3. Receptive vocabulary and productive vocabulary.Receptive /passive vocabulary refers to words that one is able torecognize and comprehend in reading or listening but unable to use automatically in speaking or writing.Productive/active vocabulary refers to those that one is not only able to recognize but also able to use in speech and writing.4. List some ways of presenting new words1) Try to provide a visual or physical demonstration whenever possible, using pictures, stick drawings, photos, video clips, mime or gestures to show meaning.2) Provide a verbal context to demonstrate meaning. Then ask the students to give meaning first before it is offered by the teacher.3) Use synonyms or antonyms to explain the meanings.4) Use lexical sets or hyponyms to show relations of words and their meanings.5) Translate and exemplify, especially with technical words or words with abstract meaning.6) Use word formation rules and common affixes to build new lexical knowledge on what is already known.7) Teach vocabulary in chunks. Chunks refer to a group of words that go together to form meaning. It is also referred to as ‘prefabricated formulaic items’ (Lewis, 2002:121)8) Think about the context in real life where the word might be used. Relate newly-learned language to students’ real life to promote high motivation.9) Think about providing different context for introducing new words.10) Prepare possible misunderstanding or confusion that student may have.6.What does a teacher do after presentation?Try to provide opportunities for students to use multiple senses such as visual, auditory, action, etc, to get familiar with the newly learned words.Engage the students in variety of activities, such speaking, listening, reading, writing or acting, using multiple senses.To create meaningful and personalized tasks for the students to use the words in their own ways.Remember, a word can not be learned by only being presented to the students, often it has to be encountered at least seven times in different contexts/tasks before it can be learned by the students.5. How to consolidate vocabulary?Labeling: Students are given a picture. They are to write the names of objects indicated in the picture.Spotting the difference: Students are put into pairs. Each member of the pair receives a picture which is slightly different from his partner’s. Students hide the pictures from one another and then, by a process of describing, questioning and answering, discover what the differences are.Describe and draw: Students are put in pairs. One student has a picture, the other a blank piece of paper and a pencil. The student with a picture must tell his/her partner what to draw so that the drawing ends up the same as the original picture. The student must not show the picture until the drawing is completed.Playing a gameUsing words series: Students construct the series following an example.Word bingoWord association: The teacher says a key word, e.g. traveling. The students then have to write down all the words they can think of connected with traveling. They have a time limit. When time is up, the person with the highest number of acceptable words is the winner.Synonyms and antonyms: The students are given a list of words。