语言学论文Title: Pragmatic Analysis of English Ambiguity 题目：英语歧义的语用分析学生姓名：闫丽娟专业：英语班级：070913任课老师：石立林二零一O年十二月AbstractAmbiguity is one of the fundamental Properties of languages. It is a common phenomenon in many languages. Ambiguity is a special relationship between a linguistic structural form and its meaning. A structural form which conveys more than one meaning is ambiguous. It is the uniqueness—the indeterminacy of meaning—that makes ambiguity be of great vitality in language practice. In many linguistic situations，ambiguity is intentionally employed to achieve certain special pragmatic purposes.This thesis mainly analyses the expression of ambiguity from the perspective of pragmatics, discussing the classifications, features, and pragmatic functions of ambiguity, and the way to achieve effective communication.Key words：Ambiguity; classifications; features; pragmatic functions摘要歧义是语言的基本属性之一，是语言中存在的一种常见现象。

歧义是语言结构形式同其意义之间的一种特殊关系，具有一个以上意义的同一结构形式就是歧义的。

由于歧义这种意义未定的独特性使得歧义在语言实践中具有极强的生命力。

在不同语言场合中，人们有意地利用歧义以达到某种特殊的语用目的充分显示出歧义的语用价值。

本文从语用学的角度分析了英语中歧义的表达，探讨了歧义的类型、特点、和语用功能，以及如何更好地去处理歧义以达到有效的交流。

关键词：歧义；类型；特点；语用功能Table of contentChapter 1 Introduction (1)1.1 Definition of Ambiguity (1)1.2 The Structure of the Thesis (1)Chapter 2 Classification of Pragmatic Ambiguity (2)2.1 Referential Ties Ambiguity (2)2.2 Informational Structure Ambiguity (2)2.3 Omitting Ambiguity (3)Chapter 3 Features of Ambiguity (4)3.1 Divisibility (4)3.2 Hierarchy (4)3.3 Dependence (4)Chapter 4 Pragmatic Functions (6)4.1 Ambiguity in English rhetoric devices (6)4.1.1 Ambiguity and metaphor (6)4.1.2 Ambiguity and Pun (6)4.1.3 Ambiguity and Irony (6)4.1.4 Ambiguity and Euphemism (6)4.2 Ambiguity in advertisement (7)4.3.1 AIDA (7)4.4 Ambiguity in literature (8)Conclusion (9)References/Bibliography (10)Pragmatic Analysis of English AmbiguityChapter 1 IntroductionAs universal linguistic phenomenon, ambiguity exists in every language and on every linguistic level. It has received worldwide attention and has been studied for many years on the level of phonology, lexis, syntax and in the field of pragmatics as well. Different linguistic schools explained ambiguity from their own particular perspectives, which have produced many achievements.1.1 Definition of AmbiguityAmbiguity is a universal linguistic phenomenon, which exists in every language and on every linguistic level. Of course, English is of no exception. QianGechuan(1980:55)has pointed out that “English is a kind of ambiguous language”. What is ambiguity? Ambiguity is defined as expressions, which have more than one meaning. In other words, an expression is ambiguous if it can be interpreted in different ways, and the interpretations are not paraphrases of each other. (David, 2003: 464).1.2 The Structure of the ThesisChapter one is introduction, introducing the definition of ambiguity, and the structure of the essay. Chapter two mainly talks about the classification of ambiguity. Chapter three analyzes the features of ambiguity. Chapter four discusses the pragmatic functions. Chapter five is summary.Chapter 2 Classification of Pragmatic AmbiguityScholars home and abroad have put forward many ways of classifying ambiguity. The significance of making a classification lies in the fact that it can help people understand how ambiguity is caused. In Utterance Ambiguity, the contents of discourse are that what is said obviously, and the ambiguity of discourse contents referential ties ambiguity, information structure ambiguity, and omission of ambiguity.2.1 Referential Ties AmbiguityReference is the relationship between the reference object and the words used to represent the object. Usually we get to know what a word refers to from words.For example: He told his father he had been talking too much.The second pronoun “he” can either refers “himself” or “his father”, so that there are two different ambiguities: a, he himself talks two much: b, his father talks too much. In this situation, the way to remove the ambiguity is to find the correct object the pronoun refers to. The sentence can be corrected as: c, He said to his father,” I have been talking two much. ” d, He criticized his father for talking too much.2.2 Informational Structure AmbiguityA word in discourse, from the intention of transferring information, can be divided into theme and rhyme. A sentence will have topic ambiguity if it cannot make sure the topic, or it suits more than one topic. Moreover, when the informational focus is not clear or more than one focuses, there will be focus ambiguity.For example:A.…can you see a female?B. Of course. I can see a female as easily as a male. Do you suppose I’m blind?A. You don’t seem to follow me somehow. There is a female downstairs who wants to see you.In this example, the ambiguity aims at the different comprehensions. A wants to ask: Do you have time to meet a women. But B thinks that A asks whether he could distinguishmen and women. Due to different topic held, both parties will have different understandings by the same statement.In actual conversation, conversation both will lead to misunderstanding because of different topics held, but through several rounds of dialogues and further conversations cognizant of each other's intentions, e misunderstanding can be eliminated.2.3 Omitting AmbiguityOmission can make discourse coherence and achieve concise and comprehensive, but sometimes will course ambiguity.For example:A: could you mind my asking if you’ve ever taken drugs，Mr. Green?B: Absolutely not.In the example, B‟answer could have two possibilities of omission. One is to omit “I”in front and then “do” and “mind”, which can be understood: I absolutely do not mind. On the other hand, if omitting “It‟s”and “true that I‟ve taken drugs”, B‟s answer can be understood: It‟s absolutely not true that I‟ve taken drugs. Omitting ambiguity is decided by the context, so it is important to distinguish according to the context and discourse factors.Chapter 3 Features of AmbiguityBased on his definition, Qiu Shude states that ambiguity has three features: divisibility, dependency and hierarchy (Qiu, 1998: 9).3.1 DivisibilityThat is, an ambiguous sentence can manifest two or more than two grammatical features, semantic interpretations or communicative intentions.For instance:a) The men decided to wait by the bank.b) Flying planes can be dangerous.c) It’s cold here.Sentence a) is lexically ambiguous since the word bank is polysemous; therefore, this sentence has two semantic interpretations: the men decided to wait nearby the riverside or the men decided to wait near a financial institution.Sentence b) has two deep structures as shown in Figure 2.Sentence c) may have more than one communicative intention. It may be a greeting because the westerners often greet each other by talking about weather or a complain in the case that the weather is too cold or a suggestion of going to a warmer place.3.2 HierarchyThat is, the trigger or resolution of ambiguity runs through all levels of language from the phonology, through semantics and syntax, to pragmatic level.For example:He saw her duck.In this sentence, the word “duck” has two word classes—noun and verb, so the sentence is syntactic ambiguous because it has two distinct syntactic structures which represent two semantic interpretations. These two different semantic interpretations may be retained or one will be ruled out in use.3.3 DependenceThe trigger, appearance, resolution and use of ambiguity are all closely related to the pragmatic features. Contexts are the external condition that determines ambiguity. The dependence between ambiguity and context can be seen from two aspects. On one hand, under insufficient context, ambiguity will be triggered by ambiguous words or ambiguous structures and can be resolved under appropriate contexts.Take a look at the following conversation between a customer and a waiter:A: Do you serve crabs?B: Sit down, Sir, we serve everyone.In this conversation, A‟s utterance is ambiguous. It can be interpreted as:1) Do you serve querulous people?2) Do you supply crabs (a kind of seafood).In this utterance, both the polysemous word “crab” and the context make co ntribution to ambiguity. The conversation takes place in the restaurant. It is the insufficient context—in the restaurant--that gives a reasonable explanation to the existence of the ambiguity. If this conversation does not happen in restaurants, the ambiguity may not arise. Suppose that it happens in a shoes shop, “Do you serve crabs” can only be understood as 1), although the word “crabs” are still ambiguous, because it is known that shoes shops do not supply crabs (seafood).On the other hand, with the help of context, a phonologically, lexically and syntactically unambiguous sentence can be ambiguous, i.e. it has more than one interpretation.For example:He is skating on thin ice.This sentence is not ambiguous at the levels of language from phonology, semantics and syntax, but is ambiguous in the context that he is actually doing skating on thin ice. The two interpretations are:1) He is doing skating on the thin ice now;2) He is taking a risk.Chapter 4 Pragmatic Functions4.1 Ambiguity in English rhetoric devicesRhetoric device is very important in a language. In fact, various types of pragmatic ambiguity are used in rhetoric devices. Most of the traditional studies of ambiguity focus on its relations with rhetoric devices.4.1.1 Ambiguity and metaphorMetaphor is a figure of speech in which a word of phrase that ordinarily designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison. (Dictionary of the English Language,1992). Metaphor can be regarded as a kind of pragmatic ambiguity, because every kind of metaphor contains its literary meaning and implied meaning, and the two meanings in one word or phrase make the sentence ambiguous. This ambiguity is expressed in contradictory unity between literary meaning and implied meaning. We say they are contradictory because metaphor violets the quality maxim. Meanwhile, they are unified because the literary meaning is only a means and the illocutionary act or implicature is the real intention of the speaker or writer.4.1.2 Ambiguity and PunThe pun exploits ambiguity, or similarity between two words, to make the same word suggest two different but equally possible meanings.(Hans 1969:271)From its definition we can see that the semantic emphasis of pun is laid on its ambiguity. So pun uses the ambiguity caused by the words of homophony or polysemy to express the real intention of the speaker.4.1.3 Ambiguity and IronyIrony is the use of words to express something different from and often opposite to their literary meaning.(Webster‟s New World Dictionary,1972).So obviously the figure of speech--irony violets the quality maxim of cooperation principle. But irony violets this maxim deliberately so as to create a sarcastic rhetorical effect which is more forceful than direct expression. Irony can also be regarded as a special ambiguity because the writer or speaker expresses his or her real utterance meaning through the literary meaning.4.1.4 Ambiguity and EuphemismEuphemism is defined as “use of other,usually less exact but milder or less blunt, words of phrases in place of words required by truth or accuracy.”(Oxford Advanced learner‟s Dictionary of Current English,1979).Euphemism is often intended to obscure or hide the real situation. It also violates the quality maxim. But most euphemisms intend to save people‟s face or show respect to a kind of religion or custom, so it obeys the polite principle. Some euphemisms should be put in a proper context, or it will cause ambiguity.4.2 Ambiguity in advertisementIntentional ambiguity is quite commonly used in advertisements, both home and abroad. This section will pin down the advertisers persuasive strategies using the ambiguous advertisements as evidence of their intention to accomplish AIDA, convey covert information or win new buyers without alienating previous buyers.4.2.1 AIDAThe purpose of advertising may be generalized as: to seize customers‟ A ttention, to excite their I nterest, to stimulate their D esire and to cause them to take A ction (Tanake,1994). Here we will list some special evidence to further analyze this Point.4.2.1.1 Employing negative sentencesIf you think your journey‟s hell,try catching the 1815 to Waterloo. This is an advertisement for National Army Museum. The first interpretation of this might be that advertiser is offering long-suffering commuters an even worse train journey. But as a commuter, train would be unlikely to go on Waterloo at 6:15 Pm. So the reader may find the interpretation of 1815 is actually a date and of Waterloo as the battle but not the name of the railway station.4.2.1.2 Assigning literal meaningsFinally, Power Comes With No Strings Attached.This is an advertisement using ambiguity to highlight benefit of a vacuum cleaner called “Freedom”.In this headline, the word “Power”may be given either the sense “electricity”, which relates to the product or a more general sense “the ability to do or act”. Also the expression “with no strings attached” which is normally used in a figurative sense …with no limiting condition‟ must be understood here in a literal meaning “without a cord”and so must be the word “Freedom‟‟.Advertisers often assign a literal meaning to advertisements especially when idioms are used and thus bring about ambiguity to attract reader s‟ attention, which is also a way ofmaking the reader an expression with the product or service promoted and so make the positive connotations of the advertisement.4.4 Ambiguity in literatureWe tend to think of language as a clear and literal vehicle for accurately communicating ideas. But even when we use language literally, misunderstandings arise and meanings shift. People can be intentionally or unintentionally ambiguous. Nevertheless, when someone uses a potentially ambiguous sentence or expression, usually the intention was to express only one meaning. As we know, most words can have denotations, apparent meanings, connotations and implied or hidden meanings. Also, we often use words in a figurative way. Even though figurative language is more often used in poetry and fiction, it is still very common in ordinary speech.Ambiguity is a poetic vehicle. It is human nature to try to find meaning within an exchange. A text is given to us and in return we give our interpretation. Our own associations give understanding of what is presented to us.ConclusionEnglish ambiguity phenomenon is rather complicated. This paper only discussed the pragmatic ambiguity, using pragmatics of some theories of pragmatic ambiguity to discuss the types and functions of ambiguity, aiming to have a more objective understanding of ambiguity. Ambiguity itself both has negative side and positive side. 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