Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway v. Columbus Rolling-Mill -The Mirror Image Rule
镜像规则
An offer that is unequivocally明确地accepted, creates a contract. But what happen when an offeree attempts to accept a offer while modifying the terms.
Today, we consider that question and learn about The Mirror Image rule by looking at the 1886 case decided by the United States Supreme Court called Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway Company vs Columbus Rolling-Mill Company.
In Minneapolis and St. Louis railway, the plaintiff, a railroad company, sent a letter dated December 5th, to the defendant, the manufacturer requesting price quotes for steel rails.
The letter asked for the prices for 500 to 3,000 tons of steel rails and 2,000 to 5,000 tons of iron rails. The defendant, manufacturer, replied on December 8th, writing that it did not make steel rails but would sell 2,000 to 5,000 tons of iron rails for $54 per gross ton for cash.
On December 16th, the railway company responded by telegram and followed up with a second letter to accept the manufacturers offer for 1,200 tons of iron rails at the quoted price. The manufacturer responded by telegram that it could not book the order at that price.
The railway then sent a telegram accepting the offer to sell 2,000 tons.T he manufacturer did not fill that order either and denied the existence of any contract.
The trial court found, for the defendant, manufacturer, and the instant court affirmed.初审法院判决被告（制造商）胜诉；终审法院维持原判。
So, the central issue in this case is fairly straight forward, was the defendant bound to honor the plaintiff's final acceptance of the offer to sell 2,000 tons of iron rails. The answer is no. The court agreed with the defendant and held that no contract was formed.
The defendant offered to sell 2,000 to 5,000 tons of iron rail to the plaintiff. The plaintiff then attempted to accept the offer by ordering just 1,200 tons, an amount less than the 2,000 ton minimum offered. 1200吨，数量少于要约中的最小数字2000吨。
The court held that, "A proposal to accept, or an acceptance upon terms varying from those offered, is a rejection of the offer承诺中对要约进行变更视为拒绝要约, and puts an end to the negotiation, unless the party who made the original offer renews
it, or assents to the modification suggested." Since the plaintiffs qualified acceptance varied, the number of tons, it was in-law a rejection of the offer. The plaintiff subsequent attempt to accept the defendant's offered to sell 2,000 tons of iron rails was therefore unenforceable because as the Court put it, the other party having once rejected the offer cannot afterward revive it by tendering in acceptance to it.
镜像规则
The holding in Minneapolis and St. Louis Railways is really a classic example of the common law Mirror Image rule普通法的镜像规则. The Mirror Image rule operates with admirable simplicity. Any response by an offeree which varies or adds to the terms of an offer is treated as a counteroffer任何对要约条款的附加内容属于反要约. In turn, that counteroffer terminates or blows up the original offer反要约终止了原要约的效力.
Traditionally, courts have insisted upon a total congruence要约和承诺的完全一致between the offer and acceptance. In other words, the acceptance must be the mirror image of the offer.
So, here's a pop quiz; Ben knowing Alex is looking to sell his car, meets Alex at his home. Alex offers to sell the car for $10,000. After kicking the tires a bit, Ben tells Alex, "I'll take the car with a new air freshener for $10,000." Immediately after Ben finishes the sentence, Carry drives by, leans out the window, and shouts, "I'll take the car for $12,000!" Alex then refuses to sell the car to Ben, who is now willing to take the car, as is, without a new air freshener for $10,000. Is Alex bound to sell the car to Ben? No. Ben's response that he would buy the car and a new air freshener vary the terms of Alex's original offer.Therefore, under the Mirror Image rule, it was not an acceptance, it was a counteroffer. Thus, a rejection that terminated the original offer.
Under the Mirror Image rule, even a non-material variation like an air freshener can be fatal根据镜像规则，甚至是非实质性的变更如车载新风系统也是致命的. The assumption underlying the Mirror Image rule is that if the offer he introduces new or different terms, the offeree does not assent to the offer and further negotiation is required. It would be clearly impermissible for an offeree buyer to accept an offer while at the same time reducing the offer or selling price. But other less important terms are connected to the price. Unilateral changes introduced by the offering might change the offeror's costs or risk.因为单方面的变更会改变要约人的成本并增加其风险The offer might agree to any changes but that should be the offeror's choice. An offeree
cannot pick and choose from among the terms, agreeing here and disagreeing there, and then assert the existence of a mutual agreement.受要约人可以对其进行选择，双方最终达到合意并订立合同。‘
镜像规则的弊端
However, the Mirror Image rule has its downsides. The Mirror Image rule makes it more difficult to create contracts because any deviation by the offeree and restating the terms can destroy a what otherwise would be a validly formed contract. Accepting by restating terms of the offer is dangerous because if you misstate any of the terms, you not only don't accept, but your misstatement blows up the original offer and your option to accept is gone.
That's why it's safer to accept by simply saying I accept or okay or done. If a party wishes to negotiate a point, he does so at its own peril because doing so will terminate the original offer. Or if the parties seemingly reach an agreement but one party later discovers that the acceptance differs slightly from the offer, the Mirror Image rule provides that party with a route to withhold performance.
There are strong hints暗示、线索of the Mirror Image rule in section 59 of the restatement second of contract which is, "A reply to an offer which purports to accept it but is conditional on the offeror's assent to terms additional to or different from those offered is not an acceptance but is a counter-offer有额外条款的承诺不是承诺而是反要约。. The restatement however is a little more forgiving than the common law, Mirror Image rule, under Section 61, an offeree may request additional changes when she accepts an offer Section 61 reads, "An acceptance which requests a change or addition to the terms of an offer is not thereby invalidated unless the acceptance is made to depend on assent to the changed or added terms." 61条例外规定，承诺并不必然失去效力，同意更改或附加条件除外。
So, consider, again, the example above where Alex offers to sell his car to Ben for 10,000. This time, instead of insisting on a new air freshener, Ben tells Alex, "You have a deal and I'd appreciate it if you could throw in a new air freshener for good measure." Under this scenario, can Alex revoke his offer after Carry drives by and offers $12,000 for the car? No, under Section 61 of the restatement, Ben is allowed to accept Alex's offer and request a complementary air fresher, as long as this acceptance does not depend on Alex providing the air freshener. 新风系统不依赖于合同成立，意思是不要
将新风系统变成合同要约的一部分。Here, Ben explicitly accepted Alex's offer and did not seem to condition that acceptance on his request for a new air freshener.
Under the common law, the Mirror Image rule is a default rule默认规则which can be contracted around可通过合同约定by either the offeror or the offeree as described by section 39(2) of the Restatement, "An offeree's power of acceptance is terminated by his making a counter-offer, unless the offeror has manifested a contrary intention or unless the counter-offer manifested contrary intention of the offeree."反要约终止承诺，除非除要约人有相反意思表示，或者反要约表明受要约人有相反意思表示的以外In other words, an offeror can specify that an offer is not terminated by a counter-offer and an offeree can make a counter-offer without rejecting the original offer. Section 39 is unusual because it creates what might be called a Double-Sided Default Rule双面默认规则，要约人和受要约人均可单方面变更要约。which can be unilaterally altered by either the offeror the offeree.
Let's recap. Today, we discuss the Mirror Image rule which says that an offer he cannot accept an offer while simultaneously and unilaterally changing the terms of the offer. Introducing new terms creates a counter-offer and unless otherwise specified by either of the parties, a counter-offer destroys the original offer.除非双方另有约定，反要约终止要约。
Textile Unlimited, Inc. v. A . BMH and Company - Yarn Battle of Forms
The next case delves into one of the most opaque不透明的sections of the Uniform Commercial Code. In his fun-filled opinion in Textile Unlimited versus A..BMH, Judge Thomas of he Ninth Circuit had to grapple格斗with the battle of the forms in which two companies send each other formed documents with incompatible terms and conditions.两家公司彼此都给对方发了不相匹配的条款和条件。
The case involved Textile Unlimited, a yarn distributor in California, and A..BMH, a yarn manufacturer in Georgia. The two companies regularly did business with Textile, buying yarn from A..BMH 38 times.
You can see some of Textile's yarn here. Each time Textile sent a purchase order to A..BMH via a broker, and then A..BMH would send an invoice and an order acknowledgment that contained an arbitration clause stating that any dispute would have to be arbitrated back in Atlanta.
On the 39th order, Textile received what it claimed was defective yarn, and so it refused to pay.A..BMH set up an arbitration in Atlanta, but Textile sued in Federal Court in California to prevent the arbitration from going forward. 一方提交仲裁，另一方提交加州法院进行诉讼，以避免仲裁。
We're looking at the opinion from the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, the Federal Appeals Court that covers California and other western states. Judge Thomas must decide whether the arbitration clause is enforceable even if Textile Unlimited never explicitly agreed to it.
Let's walk through the key sections of the Uniform Commercial Code, Section 2-207, to see how Judge Thomas reaches his conclusion that the arbitration clause is not enforceable because it's not part of the contract between the two parties本案中仲裁条款无效，因为仲裁条款并不是双方合同的一部分. Subsection one deals with the basic question of whether there's a contract in this battle of the form contexts, where two companies are sending back and forth forms with conflicting terms.两家公司均发送了争端解决条款，但却相互冲突。When confronting a 2-207 question, it's important to separately address different routes to whether a contract is formed and separately, what are the terms of the contract if it is formed. 2-207 lays out different ways of forming the contract and different ways can produce different terms.
2-207条美国统一商法典
Section one first tells us that an expression of acceptance can operate as an acceptance even if that expression states terms that are additional to or different from those that are offered. That by itself tells us that the UCC rejects the common law mirror image rule.说明美国统一商法典没有采用普通法下的镜像规则。In the Minneapolis and St. Louis railway case, when the offeree made an expression of acceptance that stated different terms, the expression was considered a counteroffer not an acceptance.在铁路公司案中，该表达则被认为是反要约而非承诺。But 2-207(1) tells us that non-matching acceptances, they do operate as acceptances and therefore can form contracts. 但是美国统一商法典2-207(1)条却说，不匹配的承诺也可以作为承诺，成立合同。
Second, subsection one says that a written confirmation of an earlier oral agreement can also operate as an acceptance even if the confirmation states different terms.口头订立的和合同的书面确认即使确认了不同的条款也是承诺。So, if a buyer and seller agree orally to a big order on the telephone, and then one sends a written confirmation in part to satisfy the statute of frauds, the confirmation can operate as an acceptance even if this confirmation includes different or additional terms.
But subsection one also includes the famous unless clause, which tells us that the two ways of creating a contract, the non-matching acceptance route and the non-matching confirmation route, that these two routes are not effective if acceptance is expressly made conditional on ascent to additional or different terms. 但是该条也规定了“除非条款”，提供了两种合同成立的方式，非匹配承诺路径和非匹配确认路径，这两种路径并不是有效的，如果承诺额外或不同条款是有条件的。
The unless question boils down浓缩to whether the offeree's form says that the acceptance is conditional on the offeror's accepting the new or additional terms. If that's the case, then, the writing does not operate as an acceptance, but operates merely as a counteroffer.除非条款归结为，是否受要约人的答复构成一个新或额外的条件条款，如构成，则成立反要约；如不构成，则成立承诺。
In this case, A..BMH, the offeree, had a form that is quite explicit, "Seller's willingness to sell yarn to you is conditioned on your acceptance卖方同意销售纺织品
构成您承诺的条件。of these Terms of Sale." So, A..BMH's form expressly triggers the unless clause. There is therefore no contract based on 2-207(1). It's interesting to note that in this context, Textile Unlimited's receipt of the yarn wasn't an acceptance of new terms.因此，纺织公司的回复不构成新条款的承诺。As Judge Thomas notes, "We don't want a rule where whoever sentence the last form wins."
So, if subsection one tells us that the contract has been entered into based on the forms, subsection two tells us what the actual contents of the contract are if it is formed under subsection one. It doesn't apply in this case because there was no subsection one formation, but it's worth familiarizing yourself with what the terms would be under subsection two. 本案不适用第一条，因为不具备第一条中的情况。
The first sentence of subsection two tells us that additional terms are to be construed as proposals for additions to the contract. Remember, the contract was formed with non-matching terms. But according to the first sentence of subsection two, those new terms are not included in the contract, but are an offer to modify if the other side agrees to this modification proposal.
UCC 2-207(2)内容, 只适用商事活动中
The second sentence, however, lays out a different treatment of contracts formed under subsection one that are between two merchants. By default, the new terms on the offeree's form become part of the contract if the formation is between two merchants, except under three listed conditions.
附加条款构成合同的一部分，除非：
附加条款导致合同不成立的情况（只适用商事活动）
Number one, the offer expressly limits acceptance to the terms of the offer. Number two, if the additional terms materially change the agreement, and number three, if the other side objects. 要约明示限制了对要约条款的承诺；附加条款对合进行了实质变更；其他方反对。
In this case, if there had been a contract formed under sub-section 1, the arbitration clause would probably have been valid because the parties are merchants and textiles offered didn't expressly limit acceptance to its terms of the offer, and crucially the court probably would find that the additional arbitration term isn't a material alteration.
Finally, textile unlimited never objected to this arbitration clause. Many times, the
question of whether non-matching terms between merchants come into the contract is going to be governed by the Shakespearean question, "To be or not to be?"
UCC 2-207(3) Knock out doctrine 剔除规则
Did the terms materially alter the agreement? Sub-section 3 of 2-207, tells us what happens if there's no formation under sub-section one, but the parties conduct based on what they do, evidences that they believed they were in a contract. If the parties act as if there is a contract by shipping and accepting the goods. So, there can still be a contract based on their conduct and secondly, it tells us what terms to apply when we're going to have formation via party conduct and those terms are going to be governed by what's called the knockout doctrine.
剔除规则：去掉两家公司不能达成一致的条款，再用美国统一商法典中的默认规则补充。
Under the knockout doctrine, we remove any terms on which the two companies forms do not agree, and then supplement what's left over with the default rules from the UCC. As applied to this case, the arbitration agreement is not in both forms and so it would be knocked out. We strike it out. It isn't part of the contract and so the court will not enforce it. Sub-section three provides both a third route to non-matching formation and a knockout rule for determining what terms will be in the contract. Sub-section in three is important because in a classic battle of the forms, there will not be sub-section one formation. Because the forums will always demand additional ascent, so the unless clause will be triggered.
The drafters of 2-207 hoped that the knockout rule would put a thumb on the scale in favor of the UCC defaults. Under the Common Laws mirror-image rule, the last form tended to win the battle of the forms. You see, under the mirror image rule each writing exchanged between the buyer and the seller failed to form a contract because it was not a mirror image. Each writing was therefore just a counter offer. The seller forms would often restrict warranties and the buyer's forms would not restrict the warranties. Each non-matching form would merely be a counter offer. The seller would normally then win the battle of the forms because the seller would send the last form with its shipments and the buyer would be deemed to accept this last counteroffer by taking physical possession of the goods.
So, under the common law and the mirror-image rule, the seller's form restricting warranties特约条款would normally govern the terms of the contract.
But sub-section three sought to fix that by saying that when the conduct of the parties evidence the formation of a contract that conflicting terms drop out and the default warranties, and other terms would govern whenever there was a disagreement.
例子
So, imagine this hypothetical. ABC sends an order to XYZ to buy a 100 widgets. 小工具XYZ sends an invoice and then the goods. The invoice contains a provision saying, only "There will be no punitive damages based on this sale." ABC does not say anything about the punitive damages provision. The widgets turned out to be defective and ABC sues.Are they bound by the punitive damages provision? Well, the answer is probably yes. In this situation, the term concerning the punitive damages is incorporated probably into the contract.
First, we see that under sub-section one there is a contract, because the non-matching invoice operates as an acceptance. An XYZ's form doesn't condition its acceptance on ABC's assent to additional terms. So, we have sub-section one formation. We then look to sub-section two to find out what the terms of this formed contract are. So, under sub-section two, it says that the contracts between merchants, which we have here, the new terms become binding unless one of the three conditions apply. Well, ABC didn't object and a court likely wouldn't find material alteration in this prohibition on punitive damages. 不得进行惩罚性赔偿的的条款并非是对合同的实质变更。
Since we'll learn later on in the course or actually in contracts two that punitive damages usually aren't allowed in contract cases. So, the new condition is likely to be found to be binding. But the big fight again will be "To be or not to be" whether the provision was a material alteration.最大的挑战是认定条款是否为实质性变更。
There are three main takeaways from this battle of forms discussion. The first is that in transactions between merchants, new terms on the offeree's form generally do become part of the contract unless the offeror objects or these new terms materially alter the agreement. When the two parties don't ever come to agreement based on the forums, courts apply under sub-section three of 2-207 the knockout doctrine.剔除原则So, the actual contract is any terms that appear on both forms together with the default rules from the UCC. Finally, when analyzing 2-207 separately, it's important that you
separately analyze what terms govern from the question of whether a contract is formed by one of the three routes, the non-matching acceptance route, the non-matching confirmation route and the conduct of the parties route.
The Gateway Cases - Acceptance by Non-Return
You probably purchased something over the phone or online at some point in your life. After giving your credit card information, and paying for the item, it's shipped to you. Often, that shipment contains in addition to whatever you bought, a document containing terms and conditions of the sale.Such documents often include warranty information and information about dispute resolution, such as an arbitration clause这些文件中包含了质保信息和争端解决条款，如仲裁条款. Are you bound by the terms of that document? Today, we're going to compare two cases.
The first decided by the Seventh Circuit in 1997. The second by the District Court for Kansas, three years later, that addressed this question, but reached opposite conclusions.
希尔案和克洛克案的比较
In both Hill and Klocek, the plaintiffs purchase computers from the defendant company over the phone and receive shipments containing the products that offered. The shipments contained as well a list of terms.
In Hill, those terms gave the purchaser 30 days in which to return the computer if they didn't agree to the terms, and included an arbitration clause.
In Klocek, the terms declared that the purchasers retaining the computer for more than five days after the date of delivery, constituted acceptance of the terms, and similarly, included an arbitration clause.
The plaintiffs in both cases, sued Gateway after performance problems with the computers. In both cases, the company claimed the plaintiffs were bound by the arbitration clause in the terms and conditions, because the plaintiffs kept their computers for longer than the time periods set forth in those terms and conditions. Hill was decided by Judge Frank Easterbrook.Easterbrook had previously issued an influential opinion in ProCD versus Zeidenberg, a case that presented similar issues and which shaped the judge's opinion in Hill. In ProCD, Easterbrook held that, ''Terms inside a shipment of software contractually bound consumers who use the software after they had an opportunity to read the terms and reject them by returning the product.'' The same logic applied, Easterbrook said, in Hill. Crucial to the decision, was the judge's understanding of when the contract between Hill and Gateway was actually formed. The
judge denied that the contract was formed when Hill paid for the computer and Gateway delivered it,which would mean that the terms were not part of the original agreement.
Instead, relying on the principle derived from UCC 2-204 that, ''A vendor as master of the offer, may invite acceptance by conduct, and may propose limitations on the kind of conduct that constitute acceptance. A buyer may except by performing the acts the vendor proposes to treat as acceptance.'' Easterbrook concluded that Gateway invited Hill to accept by keeping the computer after receiving the terms and conditions. The arbitration clause was thus part of the contract, and bound the plaintiffs. It didn't matter that the plaintiffs didn't read the terms, because they had the opportunity and responsibility to do so.
The District Court of Kansas disagreed. It explicitly rejected Hill when it decided Klocek versus Gateway. The court in Kansas stated at the outset of its opinion that the fact that Klocek paid Gateway for a computer and receive that product from Gateway, ''Clearly demonstrates a contract for the sale of a computer." It took issue with Easterbrook's categorization of the defendant as the quote master of the offer, and his conclusion that Gateway conditioned acceptance on the plaintiffs assent to the term and conditions in the shipment. The defendant had offered no evidence that either of these things was the case.More significantly, the District Court argued that the Seventh Circuit had incorrectly concluded that the UCC Section 2-207, did not apply to these cases. UCC 2-207 is the famous battle of the forms provision that we just spoke about in the last class. As we just discussed in this textile unlimited case, 2-207 provides if a contract is formed with a confirmation that includes additional terms under Subsection 1, then that operates as an acceptance. The additional terms are to be construed as proposals for additions to the contract unless both parties are merchants.As the opinion notes, the plaintiff was not a merchant.该法律条款仅适用于商事活动，因此该附加合同条款不适用于该法律条款，附加条款不成立，仲裁条款无效。
So, under Kansas interpretation of the UCC, and this is the UCC section 2-207. If either party is not a merchant, the additional terms are proposals for additions to the contract, and do not become part of the contract unless the original offer war expressly agrees.The court concluded that the fact Klocek kept the computer for more than five days, was not sufficient evidence that he expressly agreed to the additional terms消费者持有电脑超过5天，也不能证明他同意这些附加条款. For that reason, the plaintiff was not bound by those terms including the arbitration clause. Easterbrook provided
policy justifications for his holding, asserting that, ''Writing provides benefits for both sides of commercial transaction. Customers as a group are better off when vendors skip costly and ineffectual steps such as telephone recitations, and use instead a simple approve or return device.''
It's probably true that consumers would not want to sit through and over the phone recitation of pages, of terms and conditions before completing their purchase. But is Easterbrook fair to suggest these are the only options? A footnote in Klocek offered another possibility. It said, ''The court is mindful of the practical considerations which are involved in commercial transactions, but it's not unreasonable for a vendor to clearly communicate to a buyer at the time of sale, either the complete terms of the sale, or the fact that the vendor will propose additional terms as a condition of sale, if that be the case.''
What if the gateway representative on the phone call at which the purchase took place, simply inform the consumer that the forthcoming computer shipment would contain important terms and conditions that Gateway considered a part of the contract?
These cases provide a good introduction to the concept of the rolling contract. Such contracts are formed over time with one party providing terms in batches. Some before a given item is ordered, and others later. But often, the latter batch of terms are unlikely to be read, and will be accepted by conduct. Is it fair to make increasing use of such contracts when the offer war is aware of the terms probably will never be seen or understood?
Despite that this agreement we see in these two cases, the Seven Circuits ruling and Hill is no longer controlling at least over cases governed by Illinois law. In 2006, the Illinois Supreme Court decided in Razor versus Hyundai Motor,that ''A warranty containing a disclaimer of consequential damages, which was in the owner's manual of a glove compartment of the car, the plaintiff in the case had purchased, was not part of the car sale contract, because it wasn't made available to the purchaser at or before the purchase of the car.''因为在购买汽车时或者之前没有知会消费者，自然不构成合同的一部分。The District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, recognized that the Razor decision was now controlling rather than Hill. In a separate case, Trujillo versus Apple Computer.
So, what have we learned? We were introduced to rolling contracts滚动合约, in particular, to accept or return terms that accompany customer ordered goods消费者在
订购商品厚接受或者是回复的条款. We saw two different cases laid out opposite lines of reasoning. The first, enforcing the accept or return terms, the latter rejecting them, and exploring policy arguments and potential compromises for these kinds of transactions. Once again, we see that generally, it's a good idea to read carefully the documents that come with your purchases. 购买东西时仔细阅读文件是个不错的主意。
Specht v. Netscape - No Clickwrap
Reasonable prudent person 理性谨慎人标准
Shrinkwrap Contracts 封装合同
Today we examine a case that deals with contracts in the modern world of technology and Internet contract. Many of you use web-based services such as Google, Facebook or apps on your phone, like Uber or Seamless外卖软件. Do you remember the last time you read through the terms and conditions of any of those service contracts? Have you wondered why some surfaces require you to separately click a button to accept the terms and conditions whereas others do not?
These issues are raised in Specht versus Netscape a 2002 case. That was heard by the second circuit. The decision was authored by Judge Sotomayor who as you know is now a Supreme Court Justice. Before we turn to the case, let's take a moment to learn a few key concepts. Clickwrap refers to an electronic agreement in which the user indicates agreements to terms by clicking on a radio button checking a box or the like usually as a condition of using a device or a piece of software.用户点击协议Browsewrap refers to terms of use often found via a link or websites main page that purport to bind a user solely by virtue of his or her continued use of the site.
These terms come from the use of "Shrinkwrap Contracts封装合同" which were frequently litigated in the 1990s. Shrinkwrap contracts were commonly used in box software packages which contained a notice that by, on the outside of the box, that by tearing open the shrinkwrap,the user was assenting to the software terms enclosed within. In the Specht case the plaintiff of Belize downloaded defendant Netscape's smart download program. This was a program which facilitated transmission of files online. Underneath the download button in a non-obvious position was a link to the terms associated with the download and use of the smart download software.An arbitration clause was included among those terms.不显眼的地方有一个链接，链接里有关于用户使用条款，其中还有一个仲裁条款。The smart download program allowed Netscape to record any subsequent downloads obtained by smart download users. Plaintiffs claim that this feature violated federal privacy http://biz.doczj.com/doc/7217646965.html,scape moved to compel arbitration in accordance with the terms associated with the smart download terms and conditions as well as Netscape's communicator and associated program.网景
公司想通过此条款申请强制仲裁。The Plaintiffs argued that arbitration would not be appropriate because they hadn't agreed to it. In other words, Plaintiffs argued that the arbitration clause hidden underneath the download button was not enforceable.隐藏的仲裁条款没有效力The district court denied the defendants motion to compel arbitration. The instinct court affirm the district court's ruling.
The main issue in the case as you can already tell, is whether the plaintiffs are bound by the terms of a download program if they could have reasonably downloaded the program without becoming aware of the existence of the terms? In other words, the main issue is whether the kind of browsewrap agreements in this case are enforceable. The second circuit sided with the plaintiffs. They ruled that an offeree must receive clear notice of a contract's associated terms if a download is to constitute acceptance of those terms. A contract requires mutual assent because plaintiffs did not assent to the contractual terms and could not be expected to be aware of the terms existence, they are not bound by the arbitration clause.
So what law did the court apply to this transaction where the subject matter is a license of intangible无形的software?
The court's answer here is the common law. When pressed some courts might apply the UCC by analogy to supplement the common-law. However, remember that the UCC Article two only applies to the sale of goods.但美国统一商法典第二条仅适用于货物买卖合同Something else that might apply, is the Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act UCITA.
The model Act was designed to govern Computer Information Transactions Section 103a of that act has defined computer information and information in electronic form which is obtained from or through the use of a computer or which is in a form capable of being processed by a computer. Section 112a would have dealt with clickwrap and browsewrap stating that a person manifests assent if she intentionally authenticates the term or engages in behavior that is likely to be perceived as manifesting descent下降.
But only two states Virginia and Maryland have enacted UCITA and the project has been abandoned by the National Conference of Commissioners after several states enacted legislation prohibiting UCITA from regulating transaction within their borders. The American Law Institute adopted principles of the law of software contracts in 2009.
But it remains to be seen how influential these principles will have. How much impact they'll have on judicial opinions. However, this doesn't mean that browsewrap agreements are never okay. The court held that browsewrap agreements may be enforced if the browsing user assents to it. This is going to be done on a case-by-case basis个案认定and there are no bright-line rules. But the key is that a given agreement, must be sufficiently conspicuous足够明显的.
What are some ways to make a browse wrap agreement highly visible? Well, some suggests that the icon for the terms of the user agreement can be placed in the upper left-hand quadrant of the homepage该条款需要放在主页的左上角because internet pages open from the upper left-hand quadrant象限this guarantees that the user will be able to see the icon.
Think back to the last time you used Google. Not Gmail or Google Chat or some other Google service, but Google the search engine. Did you remember accepting the terms and conditions for Google search?Google search terms and conditions are on the bottom right-hand corner of its page.As you can guess it's usually a browsewrap, because you don't have to click on any button to accept it.谷歌把条款放到右下角区域，因为它只是一个普通的浏览条款，不需要你通过点击来接受它Usage of the service means you're agreeing to the conditions.对谷歌搜索引擎的使用表明你接受该条款。
Let's turn back to the clickwrap agreements for a second. There is a little question that clickwrap agreements are presumptively enforceable. Courts have held that a click is usually enough to satisfy agr empirical经验主义的eement to an electronic transaction. But both cognitive theory and studies demonstrate that this might not be such a good thing. Professor Robert Hillman and Jeffrey Rachlinski argue that while an individual's opportunity to protect yourself against one-sided standard form contracts is arguably greater, when contracting by computer than when contracting through written forms. The cognitive perspective that consumers tend to adopt with respect to contractual risks makes it unlikely that many will take advantage of these new electronic tools. In short,almost no one reads the terms of the click wrap license before assenting to the program. 简而言之，几乎没有人会使用软件需要点击这些授权协议时认真阅读这些条款In a study of 47 thousand households over a one month period, the readership of end-user license agreements was found to be on the order of 0.1 to one percent. Maybe this explains how the British Software Retailer Game Station was able
to successfully add an immortal soul clause to its end user license agreement,which stated that, the user would give up his or her immortal soul at the sellers request.
（编者注：英国游戏公司的2020.4.1愚人节玩笑：The terms of service were updated on April Fool's Day as a gag, but the retailer did so to make a very real point: No one reads the online terms and conditions of shopping, and companies are free to insert whatever language they want into the documents.）
Making matters worse, consumers sometimes demonstrate something that might be called term o ptimism乐观. The consumer sometimes believes that the contractual terms are more favorable to them than they actually are.
For instance, in a survey of consumers concerning insurance, the consumers believed that they had more coverage from different types of harm than the insurance actually offered. 针对保险合同的研究标明，消费者相信他们能从保险合同中获得实实在在的利益。So, the consumer attributes more utility to the insurance contract then the contract actually generates for her.因此消费者相对保险合同给他们带来的切实的好处，他们更青睐于保险合同。
Some websites require users to actually click through and even scroll through to the bottom of the terms before they're able to agree to accept the offer. A few websites even required the term box to be open for a certain amount of time before the offer becomes acceptable to assure that the consumer had enough time to actually read the terms.But the vast majority of websites, make it so that the consumer offeree doesn't have to read.但绝大多数网站并不会让消费者必须阅读这些条款。It's possible of course that the consumer offerees don't want the hassle of these extra clicks or these extra precautionary devices they prefer a bugmenot approach to contract formation even if it leads to the problem of term optimism.
美国针对该类条款的法律
Now section 211 of the restatement of contracts which is sometimes referred to as "the Know Thy Customer provision消费者须知条款", might provide a little bit of consumer protection against this term optimism. Section 211 states if the other party has reason to believe that the other party manifesting such assent would not do so if he
knew that the writing contain this term then that term is not a binding part of the agreement. A comment to the section notes that customers do not in fact ordinarily understand or even read the standard terms. They trust the good faith of the party using the form. Although, customers typically adhere to standardize agreements it doesn't make sense to bind them to unknown terms which are beyond the range of reasonable expectations.
For instance, this comment says, a debtor who delivers a check to his creditor with the amount blank does not authorize an infinite figure. 就好比贷方给了借方一张发票，发票上却是一个不确定的数字。We're not giving the seller's blank checks when we click through on these contracts.当我们点击这些合同时，不会给卖方空头支票。
Professor Alan Schwartz and I have proposed another solution in an article which we published in the Stanford Law Review. We suggested that sellers should be required to disclose a standardized warning box containing unexpected, unfavorable terms.我们在《斯坦福法律评论》上发表的文章讨论过解决方法，可行的方式可能是需要弹出一个标准的警告框，其中包含一些未想到的、不为人所知的条款。This is actually an example of such a box as applied to Facebook. 脸谱网就是这么干的。
But we also suggested that representative consumers should be empowered to waive the provision of some of these terms.我们也建议，应赋予消费者取消这些条款的权利。If it turns out that a majority of consumers would prefer not to be warned then the seller would be able to forego providing this warning box of unexpected terms.
We suggested that this would together create a form democratization, where customers would have the power to both be warned about unexpected terms and the power to waive those terms if representative consumers would prefer not to be bugged by them.
If the representative consumers find these to be unhelpful, then they wouldn't have to see them. In our paper we actually tested 25 core questions about Facebook terms concerning privacy statement of rights and responsibility and we were trying to see which terms are the terms that people would expect and which terms are unexpected and unfavorable. We found five unexpected unfavorable terms and this slide shows you the two that were most unexpected and unfavorable.We provide the kind of examples that we were trying to disclose to consumers.
So today we have examined clickwrap and browsewrap contracts.点击生效和
浏览生效合同We learned that while clickwrap agreements are usually enforceable, browsewrap agreements are not enforceable unless they are sufficiently visible.点击合同通常是有效的，而浏览合同通常是无效的，除非他们足够可见。However consumers rarely read clickwrap terms or the terms in a browser agreement either. A better option might be to ensure that sellers disclosed terms that are unexpected and unfavorable.
心理学导论第三课 上堂课我们探讨了大脑及其功能The last class we talked about the brain. 接下来我们将进一步学习一些基础理论Now we're going to talk a little bit about some foundations. 所以在今天和星期一So today and Monday 我们将学习两大心理理论we're going to talk about two very big ideas 其代表人物分别是and these ideas are associated with 西格蒙特·弗洛伊德和Sigmund Freud and 伯尔赫斯·弗雷德里克·斯金纳B. F. Skinner 这两个理论便是精神分析理论and are psychoanalysis 和行为主义理论and behaviorism. 今天我们先来讲讲精神分析理论And I want to talk about psychoanalysis today 下周再谈行为主义理论and behaviorism next week. 这些理论广阔的适用范围Now, one of these things-- one of the things 则是它们能够吸引大家关注的原因之一that makes these theories so interesting is their scope. 本课程中所学习的大部分理论Most of the work we're going to talk about 大部分学术观点in this class-- 它们的应用范围都是狭隘的most of the ideas are narrow. 我们会谈到某人所提出的So, we're going to talk about somebody's idea 关于种族偏见的理论about racial prejudice, 但它却并不是语言获得的理论but that's not a theory of language acquisition. 我们会讲到关于精神分裂症的理论We'll talk about theories of schizophrenia 但它们却并不能用来解释性吸引but they're not explanations of sexual attractiveness. 大多数理论的适用范围都是有所限定的Most theories are specialized theories, 但这两个理论则是大理论but these two views are grand theories. 它们试图对世间的一切做出解释They're theories of everything, 包括了日常生活encompassing just about everything that matters, day-to-day life, 儿童发展心理疾病child development, mental illness, 宗教战争及爱情religion, war, love. 弗洛伊德和斯金纳的理论解释了上述一切Freud and Skinner had explanations of all of these. 当然这里并不是历史课堂Now, this is not a history course. 给你们介绍这两位心理学泰斗I have zero interest in describing historical figures in psychology 并不只是想让大家了解心理学史just for the sake of telling you about the history
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001.28,002.42我认为I think...the, sort of, 002.42,006.45当你谈到金融市场时first thing that I think most people think about 006.45,007.26大多数人首先想到的事情or the first question 007.26,011.11或者说首先想到的问题when you're thinking about financial markets is 011.11,012.43应该是市场是否有效whether they're efficient or not 012.43,018.97市场是否已经包含了所有已知信息Whether they incorporate all known information 018.97,020.75我们是否能够获得if it's possible to do, sort of, 020.75,027.21比市场整体显著更佳的收益significantly better than the market as a whole. 029.26,031.46我不太确定I'm not sure 031.46,035.04曾经经济学绝对的共识是Used to be absolutely received economic wisdom 035.04,037.79金融市场是有效的that financial markets were efficient. 037.79,038.99现在呢Now it's... 038.99,043.44我觉得从学术角度来讲这还是主流观点I think it's still the dominant academic view, 043.45,048.46但出现了较大的争议but there's a big debate and 048.46,051.74两方都有不少支持者there are partisans on both sides. 051.74,052.97事实上对我而言It's actually...to me, 052.97,055.64其实是个简单明了的问题it's actually a fairly simple question. 055.64,000.49市场有效性这个概念The efficient...the notion that markets are efficient 000.49,003.16是从一个先验理论衍生而来derives from an a priori theory, 003.16,006.38与所有市场理论同出一门which is the same sort of theory about all markets. 006.38,007.38市场中有很多激励因素There are lots of incentives, 007.38,011.57人根据自己的利益来行动people acting in their own interests, 011.57,014.23他们就是这样they have to do that. 014.23,019.95这是很诱人的先验理论It's a very appealing kind of a priori theory, 019.95,023.76可是任何理论的问题在于but the thing about theories is 023.76,025.33它们要能拿来做预测they're supposed to make predictions. 025.33,029.71如果预测的事情没有出现If some of the things they predict don't come true, 029.71,031.63那么这个理论就得被抛弃the theory has to be disregarded 031.63,033.48有非常多的例子and there are many, many, 033.48,040.36可以推翻金融市场有效假说many counter examples to financial market efficiencies. 041.35,044.84比如一些公司会发行On one level, there are things like companies 044.84,048.23两支不同的股票that have two different classes of stock 048.23,050.86但是这两只股票在经济意义上完全相同that are economically identical. 052.82,059.86皇家壳牌曾经在荷兰发行过股份Royal Shell used to have Dutch shares 059.86,02:10.55也在伦敦发行过股份that traded in Holland and U.K. Shares traded in London.
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http://biz.doczj.com/doc/7217646965.html, 立思辰留学介绍，史德林纪念图书馆位于学校中心地带，收藏有400万册图书，并且为耶鲁大学图书馆系统的中心。Beinecke古籍善本图书馆则收藏有迄今为止发现的最早的活字印刷本古腾堡圣经。图书馆大部分图书使用国会图书馆编目法，一些较早的收藏仍使用耶鲁编目法。所有收藏都登陆于Orbis目录系统（法学院收藏另使用Morris目录系统），并与美国主要的图书馆建立馆际互借协议，并且与个别大学图书馆实行次日送达服务，使教授和学生可以迅速的得到需要的资料。另外学校的诸多设施由称为Eli Express的速递服务连接，学生可以选择在任何一个图书馆提取索要的图书和归还图书。这些服务对本科学生和教授都是免费的。
1.情境的含义 情境，指在一定时间内各种情况的相对的或结合的境况。包括戏剧情境、规定情境、教学情境、社会情境、学习情境等。 2.灾难后压力障碍的主要症状有哪些？ 这种综合征的主要症状是：（1）对周围事物麻木不仁，对早先的活动缺乏兴趣，孤独，退隐，意志消沉；（2）在记忆中与睡梦里反复出现受灾时的场面；（3）焦虑，可能出现寝食难安、注意力难以集中和过度的警觉。有些人因其他人死亡而自己却活着会产生罪疚感。灾难后压力障碍可以在灾难后立即形成，也可因某些较轻压力的触发而在数周或数月后产生。它可以持续相当长的时间而不愈。这时还会出现生理上的不适，包括疲劳感增加、头痛、感冒等病症，以及由寝食难安而导致的体重下降。 3.理解美国心理学家布朗芬布伦纳提出的社会生态系统理论 布朗芬布伦纳的生态系统理论 布朗芬布伦纳在其理论模型中将人生活于其中并与之相互作用的不断变化的环境称为行为系统。该系统分为4 个层次, 由小到大分别是: 微系统、中系统、外系统和宏系统。这4个层次是以行为系统对儿童发展的影响直接程度分界的, 从微系统到宏系统, 对儿童的影响也从直接到间接。布朗芬布伦纳生态系统理论的行为系统模型见图1[4, 5 ]。 环境层次的最里层是微系统, 指个体活动和交往的直接环境, 这个环境是不断变化和发展的。对大多数婴儿来说, 微系统仅限于家庭。随着婴儿的不断成长, 活动范围不断扩展幼儿园、学校和同伴关系不断纳入到婴幼儿的微系统中来。对学生来说, 学校是除家庭以外对其影响最大的微系统。布朗芬布伦纳强调, 为认识这个层次儿童的发展, 必须看到所有关系是双向的, 即成人影响着儿童的反应, 但儿童决定性的生物和社会的特性与其生理属性, 人格和能力也影响着成人的行为[6 ]。 例如, 母亲给婴儿哺乳, 婴儿饥饿的时候会以哭泣来引起母亲的注意, 影响母亲的行为。如果母亲能及时给婴儿喂奶则会消除婴儿哭泣的行为。当儿童与成人之间的交互反应很好地建立并经常发生时, 会对儿童的发展产生持久的作用。但是当成人与儿童之间关系受到第三方影响时, 如果第三方的影响是积极的, 那么成人与儿童之间的关系会更进一步发展。相反, 儿童与父母之间的关系就会遭到破坏。例如, 婚姻状态作为第三方影响着儿童与父母的关系。当父母互相鼓励其在育儿中的角色时, 每个人都会更有效的担当家长的角色。相反, 婚姻冲突是与不能坚守的纪律和对儿童敌对的反应相联系的[7] 第二个环境层次是中间系统, 中间系统是指各微系统之间的联系或相互关系。布朗芬布伦纳认为, 如果微系统之间有较强的积极的联系, 发展可能实现最优化。相反, 微系统间的非积极的联系会产生消极的后果。儿童在家庭中与兄弟姐妹的相处模式会影响到他在学校中与同学间的相处模式。如果在家庭中儿童处于被溺爱的地位, 在玩具和食物的分配上总是优先, 那么一旦在学校中享受不到这种待遇则会产生极大的不平衡, 就不易于与同学建立和谐、亲密的友谊关系, 还会影响到教师对其指导教育的方式
美国耶鲁大学网络公开课《金融市场》视频笔记4 耶鲁大学网络公开课《金融市场》由罗伯特.J.希勒（Robert J. Shiller）教授主讲。共26课（集），每课时长均为一个多小时，配有字幕。 [第4课] 多元化投资组合和辅助性的金融机构（时长1小时07分） 本课内容是多元化投资组合（Portfolio Diversification），辅助性的金融机构（Supporting Financial Institutions），尤其是共同基金（Mutual Funds）。 希勒介绍，这也是他长期研究的一类课题。 希勒相信，世界需要更多的多元化投资组合。这也许会让人们觉得有点怪，但希勒认为这是绝对正确的。 埃米特.汤普森也研究过这类起因的相同课题，即，为了帮助世界上的穷人，可以通过多元化投资组合来改进。 希勒说他完全就是这样认为的。 （世界上）有大量的人类困难，都可以通过多元化（分散）投资来解决。 本课要讲的，不仅只适用于安逸的富人，而对每一个人都适用。 实际上这还是关于风险的问题。 当任何人遇到惨境时，那都是某些随机遇到的结果。 当人们在生活中陷入实际麻烦时，那是由于一系列糟糕事件将人们推到不幸的境地。 金融风险管理常常就是防止发生这种不幸情况的部分（措施）。 本节课将从一些数学问题讲起，是对第二节课的继续。 希勒在第二节课讲过关于风险分摊的原理，今天接着拓展到某些方面，即，将略微集中到投资组合问题。 先讲怎样构建一个投资组合，其中有哪些数学问题，由此引入到资产定价模型，这个模型是金融中许多思考的基石。 关于这一部分内容，在耶鲁的其他课程会讲得详细些，尤其像约翰.吉纳科普洛斯（John Geanakoplos）讲的经济类251号课程（Econ 251）。 从这节课可以获得基本要点。下面从基本概念开始讲。 希勒说他只用最简单的术语来讲述。 1
优秀心理委员答辩稿 各位同学各位老师大家好，我是园林121班的白暄，很荣幸参加这次的优秀心理委员答辩。这是平时的我，时而很沉静，时而很逗比，所以在大一一开始的班委竞选时我就毫不犹豫的选择了心理委员这个职务。我担任园林121的心理委员已经快有两年的时间了。从一开始的对心理学的好奇心理，到后来深感自己的责任重大，我觉得心理委员这个职务教会了我什么是送人玫瑰，手有余香。 下面我就简单介绍一下这将近两年的时间里，我所做的一些工作业绩。大一的时候我组织班级参加一次关于大学生交流的心理团培，这次团培基本做到了全班参与，非常有效的促进了大家之间的互相了解。并且从当上心委后我便开始每天在班级群里发一条心理向导每日一句，希望可以大家可以从中获得一些感悟。这个习惯我一直坚持到现在。大二上我们班搬到了西区，有了自己的画室。于是我和女心理委员一起策划了每周在画室放映一部优秀电影的活动，在享受优秀电影洗涤心灵的同时增进各个宿舍之间的感情。像这部电影就是最近刚放映的宫崎骏收官之作《起风了》。大二下，也就是这学期一开始，我在我们班开展了心理部的推荐活动《守护天使》，活动非常有趣，收获的效果也是我一开始没想到的。除了这些特别的活动外，平时心理部的工作我和另一位心理委员也是积极配合，并且我自己也有在校网上收看耶鲁大学的《心理学导论》这门公开课。 我觉得心理委员在班级中扮演了四种角色，学校心理工作的前沿信息员2传播健康心理知识的宣传员3组织同学进行心理活动的策划员4帮助同学排忧解难的疏导员。只有成功地扮演好这4个角色，才能最大限度的保障班级的心理健康状态。 在将近两年的工作中，心理委员做的许多工作也许并不是马上就能收到效果，甚至大家有时并不了解一些心理活动的意义。但这并没有动摇我为大家服务的热情，我觉得只要能够看到班里的同学快快乐乐，拥有健康的心理状态，所有的付出就是值得的。而且这些付出也是有回报的，那就是大家快乐的笑脸，同学之间深厚的友谊，锻炼出的责任心，最后也是最重要的，我拥有了一个团结向上的班集体。我相信我会在以后的日子里继续为班级，为学校的心理工作，最大限度的贡献我的力量。谢谢大家
一个偶然的机会在verycd上发现了耶鲁大学的公开课，下载了哲学死亡，古希腊文明和聆听音乐等课程来听，感觉很不错。对于我们这些无钱出国的人来说，能够免费的享受到如此丰厚的知识和思想的盛宴，真的得感谢这个信息通达的互联网时代。在网上搜集资源的时候，发现这篇报道总结的还不错，转来给大家共享吧。 目前网上的公开课包括哈佛、耶鲁、麻省理工、伯克利分校、卡耐基梅隆等名校。在配有字幕的课程中，最受欢迎的是哈佛的《公正》，耶鲁的《1648—1945的欧洲文明》《哲学：死亡》《1945年后的美国小说》《金融市场》《聆听音乐》《博弈论》《基础物理》《心理学导论》等。后者的课程翻译过来较多，是因为耶鲁的资源更丰富，比如字幕、课件等。 如果你英文足够好，可以将听课范围进一步扩大，直接登录这些名校的网站。 哈佛大学 部分课程对全球开放，目前首选就是Justice（公正）这门课，共12节。感兴趣的人可以通过http://biz.doczj.com/doc/7217646965.html,网站，免费观看或下载。 加州大学伯克利分校 http://biz.doczj.com/doc/7217646965.html,/courses.php。作为美国第一的公立大学，伯克利分校提供了人类学、生物、化学、历史等十几类学科的几百门公开课。伯克利的视频都是.rm格式，请注意转换格式。 麻省理工学院 设立了OpenCourse网站http://biz.doczj.com/doc/7217646965.html,/OcwWeb/web/home/home/index.htm，把1900门课免费提供给全世界。提供大量课程课件，只有少数视频讲座。 耶鲁大学 http://biz.doczj.com/doc/7217646965.html,/，到今年秋天，预计放在网上的课程将达到36门。 卡耐基梅隆 http://biz.doczj.com/doc/7217646965.html,/oli/，卡耐基梅隆针对初入大学的大学生，提供10门学科的课程视频。 英国公开大学 http://biz.doczj.com/doc/7217646965.html,/course/index.php，英国十几所大学联合起来，组建了英国公开大学。有一部分课程是对注册学生开放的，还有一批课程是免费的，并提供视频。 约翰霍普金斯
耶鲁大学开放课程金融市场课表 1.Finance and Insurance as Powerful Forces in Our Economy and Society 金融和保险在我们经济和社会中的强大作用 2. The Universal Principle of Risk Management: Pooling and the Hedging of Risks 风险管理中的普遍原理:风险聚集和对冲 3. Technology and Invention in Finance 金融中的科技与发明 4. Portfolio Diversification and Supporting Financial Institutions (CAPM Model) 投资组合多元化和辅助性的金融机构(资本资产定价模型) 5. Insurance: The Archetypal Risk Management Institution 保险:典型的风险管理制度 6. Efficient Markets vs. Excess Volatility 有效市场与过度波动之争 7. Behavioral Finance: The Role of Psychology 行为金融学:心理的作用 8. Human Foibles, Fraud, Manipulation, and Regulation 人性弱点,欺诈,操纵与管制 9. Guest Lecture by David Swensen 大卫?斯文森的客座演讲 10. Debt Markets: Term Structure 债券市场:期限结构 11. Stocks 股票 12. Real Estate Finance and Its Vulnerability to Crisis 房地产金融和其易受危机影响的脆弱性 13. Banking: Successes and Failures 银行业:成功和失败
美国耶鲁大学电子工程专业详细介绍学校名称： 美国耶鲁大学 Yale University 所在位置：美国，美国康涅狄格州纽黑文市 QS排名：10 USNEWS排名：3 学费：45800 美金
录取率：0.06 Electrical Engineer，简称EE),是现代科技领域的核心学科之一。随着科学技术的飞速发展，21世纪的电气工程涵盖了几乎所有与电子、光子有关的工程行为。 二、研究方向 电子工程在中国有些学校称电子工程与信息科学，电子工程与计算机科学等。美国的电子工程专业在科研、教学及学术组织形式上与中国的电子工程专业有较大不同。美国的EE是一门内部具有很强交叉性的学科。美国主要大学电气工程学科的教学与科研领域简要归纳为11个方向：通讯与网络，计算机科学与工程，信号处理，系统控制，电子学与集成电路，光子学与光学，电力，电磁学，微结构(Microstructure)，材料与装置，生物工程。
EE在申请时需要注意其研究的方向，因国内与美国在同一方向的研究重点不能够完全统一，学生在选择专业方向时要全面考虑每个专业分支的具体研究生方向及特点，美国的EE内部具有很强的交叉学科性。而国内将EE类学科拆成一个个小的方向，导致中国学生在选择专业方向时会很难把握。传统的国内教授则认为EE应该是以system为主要核心，主要原因就在于没有那么多科研的经费投到device，material层面去研究，认为这些方面的研究不能直接产生经济效益;而system曾面的研究得到的回报比较迅速。 三、研究核心 而美国的EE的faculty认为EE应该是以device为核心，向上向下分别延伸，称为system，material或者换句话说：EE就应该是以物理层面为主要的，虽然传统国内理解的Communication，SignalProcessing等方面前几年比较热，这只是因为他们的应用市场更广泛。美国也有system层面上的研究，但不像国内花费的精力大。
心理学导论第四课 我想在这节课的开始先回头讲讲弗洛依德I actually want to begin by going back to Freud 解决一下上节课遗留的几个问题and hitting a couple of loose ends. 我周三上课的时候跳过了部分内容There was a point in my lecture on Wednesday where I skipped over some parts. 我当时说"没时间讲了" 就跳过没讲I said, "We don't have time for this" and I just whipped past it. 可整个周末我都因此而寝食难安And I couldn't sleep over the weekend. I've been tormented. 我不该跳过它们所以现在我要讲一下I shouldn't have skipped that and I want to hit-- 先告诉大家我当时为什么跳过没讲Let me tell you why I skipped it. 我所跳过的是关于The discussion I skipped was the discussion of "我们为何会有无意识" 的讨论why we would have an unconscious at all. 我当时正在讲So, I was talking about 在科学上颇有名望的弗洛依德理论the scientifically respectable ideas of Freud 我想给大家讲一些新的and I want to talk about some new ideas 关于"无意识为何会存在"的理论about why there could be an unconscious. 我之所以没讲是因为Now, the reason why I skipped it is 我不能肯定这是考虑这个问题的最佳方式I'm not sure this is the best way to look at the question. 正如我们将会在这门课中了解到的As we will learn throughout the course, 尤其是绝大多数的大脑活动by far the vast majority of what our brains do, 绝大多数的心理活动the vast majority of what our minds do, 其实都是无意识的是无法察觉到的is unconscious and we're unaware of it. 因此问题或许不该是So the right question to ask may not be, "为什么有些心理活动是无意识的""Why are some things unconscious?" 而应该是"为什么心理活动的一小部分but rather, why is this tiny subset of mental life-- 为什么这一小部分是有意识的"why is this conscious? 另一方面On the other hand, 这些关于无意识功能的主张these claims about the utility of unconsciousness, 是很具有煽动性很有趣的I think, are provocative and interesting. 所以我想很快地来给你们大家讲一下So I just wanted to quickly share them with you. 那么从进化的观点来看So, the question is, from an evolutionary standpoint,
耶鲁大学开放课程《古希腊历史简介》（全24集） 讲师介绍： 名称：Donald Kagan 职业：耶鲁大学经典与历史学院教授 学位：俄亥俄州立大学博士学位 唐纳德卡根是耶鲁大学经典与历史学院Sterling教授。耶鲁大学的前院长，他在1958年从俄亥俄州立大学获得博士学位博士。他的著作包括Archidamian战争，尼西阿斯和平和西西里远征，伯里克利和关于战争的起源与维护和平，和伯罗奔尼撒战争中雅典帝国的诞生。2002年，他是全国人文奖章获得人，2005年被任命为国家人文基金会杰斐逊讲师。About Professor Donald Kagan Donald Kagan is Sterling Professor of Classics and History at Yale University. A former dean of Yale College, he received his Ph.D. in 1958 from The Ohio State University. His publications include The Archidamian War, The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian Expedition, Pericles and the Birth of the Athenian Empire, On the Origins of War and the Preservation of Peace, and The Peloponnesian War. In 2002 he was the recipient of the National Humanities Medal and in 2005 was named the National Endowment for the Humanities Jefferson Lecturer.
（一）名词 1、欧洲债券:指借款人在本国境外市场发行的、不以发行市场所在国货币为面值的国际债券。 2、国际储备: 指各国政府为了弥补国际收支赤字,保持汇率稳定,以及应付其他紧急支付的需要而持有的国际间普遍接受的所有流动资产的总称。 3、国际清偿能力:主要包括一国政府与国际金融机构或其他国家政府之间所达成的临时性筹借资金的各种协议。 4、自有储备: 指经常项目下的顺差而形成的外汇储备。主要包括一国的货币用黄金储备、外汇储备、在国际货币基金组织的储备地位，以及在国际货币基金组织的特别提款权余额。 5、离岸金融市场: 指主要为非居民提供境外货币借贷或投资、贸易结算；外汇黄金买卖、保险服务及证券交易等金融业务和服务的一种国际金融市场，亦称境外金融市场。 6、第八条款国: 指实现了经常账户下货币自由兑换的国家。 7、国际货币体系: 各国政府为适应国际贸易与国际支付的需要，对货币在国际范围内发挥世界货币职能所确定的原则、采取的措施和建立的组织形式的总称。 8、特里芬两难: 又被称为“信心与清偿力两难”，是由美国耶鲁大学教授罗伯特·特里芬提出的布雷顿森林体系存在着的自身无法克服的内在矛盾。主要内容是美元价值要稳定，它就不能作为国际货币；美元要作为国际货币，它的价值就难以稳定。 （二）思考题 1、国际储备的构成和作用。 国际储备的构成： （一）自有储备： 1)、外汇储备：指一国货币当局持有的以国际货币表示的流动资产，主要采取国外银行存款和外国政府债券等形式。 2)、黄金储备：指一国货币当局持有的货币性黄金。在国际金本位制度下，黄金储备是国际储备的典型形式。 3)、特别提款权：是国际货币基金于1969年创设的一种账面资产，并按一定比例分配给会员国，用于会员国政府之间的国际结算，并允许会员国用它换取可兑换货币进行国际支付。 4)、国际货币基金组织的储备头寸。 (二）借入储备： 1).备用信贷：是一成员国在国际收支发生困难或预计要发生困难时,同国际货币基金组织签订的一种备用借款协议。 2).借款总安排：又称借款总协定，是国际货币基金组织和美国、英国、联邦德国、法国、口本、比利时、意大利、荷兰、加拿大、瑞典等十个发达国家(即十国集团)于1962年共同设立的一种特别贷款项目。它是国际货币基金组织为补充资金而安排的第一个备用信贷额度。 3).货币互换协定。 国际储备的作用： 1).适度缓解国际收支不平衡对本国经济的冲击，保持国际支付能力。 2).维持本国货币汇率的稳定。
甭看名人励志演讲了，去看看耶鲁大学的公开课吧(中文字幕)，能学到太多了，国内的大学真是误国误民啊。。。 音乐学 聆听音乐Listening to Music （教授本人著述） 课程简介： 本课程培养在对西方音乐理解基础上对音乐的感悟。它会介绍各种类型的音乐是如何搭配，并教导如何聆听各种类型的音乐，从巴赫，莫扎特，格里高利咏叹调到蓝调。 关于课程主讲人： Craig Wright在1966年于the Eastman School获得钢琴乐和音乐史双学位，在1972年于哈佛大学获得博士学位。 Craig Wright从1973年开始在耶鲁大学任教，目前是the Henry L. and Lucy G的音乐教授。 在耶鲁大学，Craig Wright的成就包括常年流行的入门课程“聆听音乐”和选择性研讨会“探索大自然的天才”。 每年夏天，他都会带领一些耶鲁大学的社团区法国，德国和意大利采风。 他的六本著述包括：巴黎圣母院中的音乐 (1989)、西方文明中的音乐 (2005)、聆听音乐 (5th edition, 2007)、聆听西方音乐(2007). 他目前的工作是在写作“莫扎特：探索大自然的天才” 在2004年Craig Wright被芝加哥大学授予人文学名誉博士学位。 课程安排：
1. Introduction导言 2. Introduction to Instruments and Musical Genres介绍乐器和音乐风格 3. Rhythm: Fundamentals节奏：音乐的基础 4. Rhythm: Jazz, Pop and Classical节奏：爵士流行和古典 5. Melody: Notes, Scales, Nuts and Bolts旋律：音符，音节，基本细节 6. Melody: Mozart and Wagner旋律：莫扎特和瓦格纳 7. Harmony: Chords and How to Build Them和声：和弦和如何创建主题 8. Bass Patterns: Blues and Rock贝斯风格：布鲁斯和摇滚 9. Sonata-Allegro Form: Mozart and Beethoven奏鸣曲式：莫扎特和贝多芬 10. Sonata-Allegro and Theme and Variations奏鸣曲式和主题以及主题变奏 11. Form: Rondo, Sonata-Allegro and Theme and Variations (cont.)曲式：回旋曲式，奏鸣曲式，主题变奏曲 12. Guest Conductor: Saybrook Youth Orchestra客席指挥：布鲁克青年交响乐团 13. Fugue: Bach, Bizet and Bernstein赋格：巴赫，比才和伯恩斯坦 14. Ostinato Form in the Music of Purcell, Pachelbel, Elton John and Vitamin C帕赫贝尔，艾尔顿·约翰音乐中的固定音型 15. Benedictine Chant and Music in the Sistine Chapel本尼迪克特教团圣歌和的音乐西斯廷教堂 16. Baroque Music: The Vocal Music of Johann Sebastian Bach波洛克音乐：巴赫的声乐作品 17. Mozart and His Operas莫扎特和他的歌剧 18. Piano Music of Mozart and Beethoven莫扎特和贝多芬的钢琴音乐 19. Romantic Opera: Verdi's La Traviata, Bocelli, Pavarotti and Domingo浪漫派歌剧：威尔第的《茶花女》，波切利，帕瓦罗蒂和多明戈
人们花在性爱上的时间： 研究表明人们都喜欢性爱，另一方面，人们每天花在性上的平均时间，大概为四分三秒，即使只是四分钟，但是其中包括了调情，跳舞，抛媚眼，林荫大道散步，健身房，美容院。 1.我们实际上没有在性上花费很多时间 2.即使是短短的四分钟性是非常重要的 有关性道德问题： 观点1：性行为是为了繁殖的，那么同性恋，绝经性行为，婚后节育等没有为生殖的目标服务，也许在某种意义上，是反常的。 观点2：人拥有自我意志（基因自己跳河理论），遗传的并不意味着必然的，文化的也不意味着容易改变。 磁性和雄性在的性差异 1.生物学事实：雄性动物携带有很小的生殖细胞，除了精细胞外没有其他的东西了。 雌性动物有很大的生殖细胞，除了有基因还有食物、保护罩、以及各种其他东西。 2.亲本投资理论-任何提高后代存活率的投资，通过耗费父母的精力，投资其它后代。 雌性会比雄性有更高的亲本投资，雌性的生殖细胞更大且在体内孵化它们。对于雄性可能只是片刻交欢 3.导致了不同的心理状态 1.雄性可以跟很多雌性交配，这就引起了谁可以与最多的雌性交配的竞争，单一雄性可以使数个雌 性受精，这迫使一些雄性伴侣减少，并引起雄性之间与雌性交配的竞争（雄性的富有攻击性，侵略性）
2.对于雌性，不管怎样，总能找到雄性，所以单纯的数量并不重要，所以她们的策略是跟更优秀的 雄性交配，那样，后代的存活率更高 3.从生物学上讲，雌性是挑剔的，所以雄性不仅要跟其他雄性竞争，而且还要取悦雌性。 4.雌性比雄性更加专一，女同比起男同，拉拉更倾向于一夫一妻。对于艾滋病的研究也发现，男同 性恋往往会有成百上千个性伴侣 4.造成差异除了生物学原因之外，还有文化方面的原因，男孩女孩从婴幼儿开始就会被区别对待 5.雌性表现方面的差异 1.同情心是一个核心的性别差异，睾丸酮越多社交性越差。 2.男生在社会认知理论的思维任务中表现往往不如女生。 3.孤独症、艾斯伯格综合症、行为障碍和精神病等男性的患病比例都相对较高。 4.平均来说女性在生理上就对逻辑推理这类不怎么在行。 性吸引力 对跨文化的10000个人的研究发现，每个人都喜欢善良聪明的 女性更加关注权利和地位，并且非常看重伴侣是否愿意为孩子投资（年龄并不是特别的重要，因为20岁的男人和35岁的男人在精子质量上并没有多么大的差异），女人大脑的标配就是去寻找有这样特质的男人。 漂亮实质是健康和年轻。
耶鲁大学(Yale University)，简称“耶鲁(Yale)”，是一所坐落于美国康涅狄格州纽黑文的世界著名私立研究型大学，最初由康涅狄格州公理会教友于1701年创立，1716年迁至康涅狄格州的纽黑文(New Haven)。 院校介绍 耶鲁大学是美国东北部老牌名校联盟“常青藤联盟(Ivy League)”的成员，也是八所常春藤盟校中最重视本科教育的大学之一。作为美国最具影响力的私立大学之一，耶鲁大学是美国历史上建立的第三所大学，其本科学院与哈佛大学、普林斯顿大学本科生院齐名，历年来共同角逐美国大学本科生院美国前三名的位置，位列2016-17年US News美国大学本科排名第3(与芝加哥大学并列)。耶鲁大学共走出了5位美国总统、19位美国最高法院大法官、16位亿万富翁等等。 本科专业 建筑 由美国国家建筑认证委员会认证并受到国际认可，建筑本科专业达到专业标准。课程通过以下两点让学生进入专业领域：首先，传授制作建筑必需的知识;其次，强调学科的复杂性以及在从事建筑时需要承担的责任。 艺术
如果你想进入纽黑文市的大学学习美术，耶鲁大学将是你的最佳之选。耶鲁大学提供大量的雕塑和装置，绘画，素描，版画，视频和新媒体，耶鲁大学致力于在更大的艺术和设计的世界为学生创造社交机会。 电影 通过多学科交互、设置理论模型和全球化分析的方法，结合培养学生对记录性、实验性、叙述性、交互式等电影形式的理解以及严谨的说明、解释技巧。 艺术史 耶鲁大学包括艺术史、艺术理论、艺术批判专业，是全美此类最为全面详尽的艺术学院。耶鲁大学致力以艺术的视角对19、20、21世纪进行详尽的艺术研究，进行多文化和学科间的探究。通过团体和个人的艺术实践，对文化、哲学、政治进行研习，也为学生安排的艺术、历史、社会学的课程。 本科申请要求 语言成绩：雅思7.0;托福100;PTE 70 申请材料 通过网上申请，提交两封教师推荐信、成绩单和学校报告、需要SAT或ACT成绩、语言成绩、期中报告、期末报告。 本科作品集要求 作品数量5到8幅，至少包含一副绘画。作品集非必需，只有在你认为你的作品能够帮助到你的申请的情况下才提交作品集。 音乐 钢琴 a) Prescreening Recording(audio 或 Video) (1)巴赫的前奏曲和赋格或其他原创作品 (2) 海顿、莫扎特、贝敦芬或舒伯特的奏鸣曲或变奏曲 ( recording提供至少两个对比乐章;live audition，请准备整部作品) (3) 大型19世纪的浪漫主义作品 (4) 20或21世纪作品(如果是多乐章作品，提供至少两个对比乐章) b) Live audition 同上