1.A word will cover the following points:1)A minimal free form of a language2)A word is minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.(A sound unity, A unit of meaning, A form that can function alone in a sentence);3)A word is the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing.2.C lassification of words:1)Basic and non-basic word stock or vocabulary2)Content/ lexical /open class words and function/grammatical/closed class words3.W hat is involved in knowing a word?1)Form;/ structure;/2)meanings and semantic features associated with that word;3)grammatical or syntactic behavior associated with that word;4)network of associations between that word and other words;/collocations;/ 5) limitations imposed on the use of word according to variations of function and situation;6) the degree of probability of encountering that word in speech or print.4.M orpheme can be classified as following:5.E nglish word-formation英语构词法6.D erivation / Affixation 派生法/ 词缀negative: a- dis- non- un-privative: de-dis-un- pejorative: mal- mis- pseudoprefixation and suffixation. 前缀和后缀Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases. A prefix is a letter or group of letters placed at the beginning of a word to change its meaning. Prefixes are frequently used to form new words.7.C onversion 转类法Conversion may be defined as a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any concomitan(t 伴随的) change of form. This process is also known as functional shift or zero-derivation. 零( 位派生) eg: bookstore was a must(v-n) for me. Hedowned(adv-v) his tools for a rest. He is a native(a-n)Functions of conversion: to achieve compactness and efficiency, accuracy and specificity, vividness and expressiveness, novelty and balance.8.B ackformation逆生法Backformation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a short word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already present in the language. This process is considered to be the oppositeprocess of affixation. eg:bookkeeper<bookkeeping babysit<babysittingburgle<burglar lase<laser9.A bbreviation: 缩略法Abbreviation refers to word formation through clipping, initialism and acronym. These short forms are quicker and more convenient in use and for this reason they are becoming more and more popular.Clipping截短法Word formation by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. The shortening may occur at the beginning of the word, at the end of the word and at both ends of the word. The clipped form is normally regarded as informal. eg: phone(telephone), copter(helicopter), quake(earthquake) taxi(taxicab) appx.(appendix)Initialism 首字母缩略词Words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. VOA(Voice of America), p.c.(post card), VIP(very important person), BP(beautiful people)Acronym 首字母拼音词ROM(read only memory), NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization), OPEC(Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries )10.Blending 混词法Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed as such are called blends. Blends tend to be more frequent in informal style in the registers of journalism, advertising and technical field. Eg:head+tail ：flaunt:flout+vaunt, blunt:blind+stunt, H-bomb:hydrogen+bomb, squash:squeeze+crash,hifi:high+fidelity/head+word:medicare:medical+care,/telequiz:telephone+quiz, / /word+tail:workfare:work+welfare,bookmobile: book+automobile11.Imitation 基本拟声Zap! Crunch! Swoosh! The world is Whoa!12.Borrowing 外来语Coinage 新生词Invention 创造法poundingis a phenomenon where two or more existing words are combined to construct a new word. Compounding are useful to express the same meaning shortly and briefly and it can help writer to avoid repeating. E.g. The boy who catches attention is my son. The eye-catching boy is my son. The latter one expresses the same meaning more briefly and avoid repeating when we want to mention the boy afterwards.14.Kinds of meaningConceptual meanin g refers to the meaning of a word or lexical item that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible world.Associative meaning R eflected meaning and collocative meaning, affective meaning and social meaning: all these have more in common with connotative meaning than with conceptual meaning, they all have the same open-ended, variable character. They can all be brought together under the heading of associative meaning.Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, or the mental content attached to the core meaning. These associations show people ' s emotions and attitudes towards what the word refers to.Stylistic meaning Many words have stylistic features, which form the variation in meaning from casual to formal according to the type of situation, the addresser or person addressed, the location, the topic discussed, etc. These distinctive features form the stylistic meaning of words. In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as formal, informal, literary, archaic, slang and so on.Affective meaning reflects the speaker 'ems otions, feelings and attitudes towards the person or thing in question. This meaning is often expressed in terms of the conceptual, connotative or stylistic content of the right word or by using proper intonation, tone of voice, and interjections.15.types of affective meaning:pejorative/derogatory; appreciative/commendatory16.How to express affective meaning? Explain with examples.The reflected meaning of a word is the total of all the other meanings a person thinks when hearing the word. The word has its suggestive power. Collocative meaning: Words may share the same meanings, but may be distinguished by the range of lexical terms they collocate with.Thematic meaning It is about what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.Analyzing meaning M eanings of words can be analyzed into a number of features or components, such approach is called componential analysis or semantic features analysis.17.Englishe uphemisms formation1)Compounding, Clipping, Acronym: gents (gentlemen ' s room)2).backslang, respelling of initials, phonetic distortion: elly-bay (belly)3). Borrowing, substitution of synonyms, use of fuzzy word: nude (naked)4). Metaphor, understatement, periphrases, etc.: to sleep forever, adjustment downward, landscape architect, smelly18.Five major mechanisms in semantic chang语e义s 转化Broadening/widening/extending/generalization of meaningNarrowing/restriction/reduction/specialization Amelioration/elevation Pejoration/degradationTransfer of meaning 19.The polysemy of the word一词多义 a word having twoor more closely relatedmeanings.20.Semantic relations语义关系Words do not exist in isolation. Theirmeanings are defined through their relations to other word, and it isthrough understanding these connections that we arrive at our understandingof words.A. Synonymy W ords which have the same or nearly the same meanings as otherwords are called synonyms and the relationship between them is one ofsynonymy. Absolute and relative synonyms 绝对同义词和相对同义词B. Antonyms Words opposite in meaning are generally called antonyms. Gradableantonyms 层级反义词Complementary or contradictory antonym 互补反义词Converse antonyms 逆行Three types of antonyms: gradable antonyms, complementary or contradictoryantonyms, and converses.C. Hyponymy and meronymy上下义关系和部分整体关系Hyponymy-t-he kind of ' relation The relation of hyponymy serves tostructure large parts of a language ' s vocabulary. The organization of as Thesa work like Rogetsuggests that it is perhaps an all-pervasive structuring relation.meronymy --the part of relation can similarly be represented by a hierarchyof superordinate and subordinate termsD. Homonymy 同形同音异义词Homonyms refer to words which are written inthe same way and sound alike but which have different meanings. They can beclassified into two categories: homographs and homophones.a. Homographs: 同形异义词words that have the same spelling but differ insound and meaning.b. Homophones: 同音异义词words that have the same phonological form butdiffer in spelling and meaning.20.Semantic/lexical field:It is the organization of related words and expressions into a system whichshows their relationship to one another. The semantic field arrangementbrings together words that share the same semantic space. It is a record ofthe vocabulary resources available for an area of meaning, and it enables auser of the language to appreciate often elusive meaning differences betweenwords.21.The major features of idioms1)Compositenes:s 复合性idioms consist of more than one word; They aremultiword lexical items as in bread and butter, spill the beans, let the catout the bag, etc.2)Structural stabilit:y 稳定性idioms are fixed collocations by long usage.Unlike free phrases, idioms are frozen and conventionalized collocationswhose components cannot be varied or varied only within definable limits.3)Semantic unity: 统一性idioms are semantically opaque. Unlike freephrase, the meaning of an idiom is not the sum of its constituents. In otherwords, the meaning of idiom is not transparent in most cases.Transformation/creativity in idiom R: eplacement/substitution, addition, permutation, deletionThe application of idioms: Idioms from the speech of soldiers, every-daylife of Englishmen, health, illness and death, business and the stock exchange, popular sports and games, books and stories22.Cohesive device 衔接手段(links in meaning) conjunction 连词,substitution 替代,ellipsis省略, reference指代, lexical cohesion词汇衔接Discourse is any passage spoken or written of whatever length that forms a unified corn. It may be a product of a single writer, speaker or several persons.23.词汇衔接手段reiteration(复现) and collocation共( 现)Lexical cohesion re fers to lexical items which work on the organization of coherent discourse. Under this heading includes a variety of kinds of semantic relationship that can exist between lexical items. Halliday and Hasan cluster them into two broad sub-classes: reiteration and collocation, which contribute to the creation and organization of discourse.Reiteration 复现or repetition is the occurrence of one or more items in a sentence that by themselves tell the reader or listener nothing new but reinstate some element(s) from the earlier sentences so that something new can be said about. As a form of lexical cohesion, reiteration involves the repetition of an identical lexical item, the use of a general word to refer to a lexical item, the use of a synonym or near-synonym, the use of superordinate, the use of hyponym, Equivalence 等价Naming 命名Semblance/Analogy 同义词/ 类比Metonymy 借喻etc. They serve to show the relatedness of ideas in the discourse.Collocation 搭配is a cover term for the cohesion that results from theco-occurrence of lexical items that are in some way or other associated with one another, because they tend to occur in similar environment.24.General approaches to lexical learning in EFL1.) guessing/inferring from context2.)using mnemonic techniques3.) using word parts4.) learning from word cards5.) using dictionary25.Kinds of Context Clue Linguistic clues:cues based on knowledge of English language. e.g. synonyms, antonyms,hyponyms, grammar, punctuations, word parts, pronunciation, intonation, stress, etc.Logical clue:s cues based on relationships among the various parts of the information. e.g. cause and effect, comparison and contrast, generalization and examples, restatements, definitions, etc.World knowledge clue:s cues based on the informant experi'ensc e and knowledge of the topic.Non-verbal clue:s cues based on tables, images, diagrams, etc.ing mnemonic techniques1) Repeating (verbal and oral): Repetition is the key to learning. Only by saying, writing, listening and using words again and again can one make them part of his active vocabulary.2) Linking with prior knowledge: Integrating the new word with the familiar one, connecting the new word with already known words through associating, semantic mapping and charting semantic features, etc.3)Forming word association: Getting words together on account of their semantic relations or logical connections. e.g. grass–green, school –students, hit –ball, swim –pool, apple –fruit, irritated –annoyed, dead –alive, baby –mother, etc.4)Building up semantic mapping: Brainstorming associations a word has with other words and then diagramming the results.27.What is lexical cohesion? What are the general features of it?Lexical cohesion refers to lexical items which work on the organization of coherent discourse. Cohesion means formal links between element links in form. There are 2 types of lexical cohesion,reiteration and collocation. As a form of lexical cohesion, reiteration involves the repetition of an identical lexical item, the use of a general word to refer to a lexical item, the use of a synonym or near-synonym, the use of superordinate, the use of hyponym. Collocation reflects rules of the conventions and co-occurence tendency in the use of word in discourse. Collocation is a cover term for the cohesion that results from the co-occurrence of lexical items that are in some way or other associated with one another, because they tend to occur in similar environment. For example, in a talk about football game, words like shoot, goalkeeper, penalty and kick are more likely to appearthan other words in the talk.28.Learning from word cardsStep 1 Choosing words to learnSept 2 Making word cardsStep 3 Using the cardsing DictionariesWhat are the major purposes for dictionary use?Comprehension/ Look up unknown words met while listening, reading, or translating./ Confirm the meanings of partly known words./ Confirm guess fromcontext./ Production/ Look up unknown words needed to speak, write, or translate. / Look up the spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammar, constraints on use, collocations, inflections and derived forms of partly known words needed to speak, write or translate. /Confirm the spelling, pronunciation, meaning, etc. of known words. /Check that a word exists./Find a different word to use instead of a known one./Correct an error./Learning /Choose unknown words to learn./Enrich knowledge of partly known words, including etymology.。