法律英语
合同法（Ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ Ｌａｗ）是法律中的重要部分。美国没有一部由联邦政府制定的专门的合同法。由于合同法本身的性质，涉及合同纠纷的案件一般由每个州的州法院负责审理，适用的也是州法。州法根据每个州的习惯和传统结合各州的实际情况形成。因此，对同一合同纠纷的裁决在美国各个州之间很可能会出现不同的结果，这是我们在了解和学习美国合同法的内容之前必须要搞清楚的。本讲介绍的只能是在综合各州合同法基础之上的法的基本概念和内容，有兴趣的读者可以再作进一步的研究和比较。
例句：
Ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ ｌａｗ ａｓｓｕｒｅｓ ｔｈｅ ｐａｒｔｉｅｓ ｔｏ ｐｒｉｖａｔｅ ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔｓ ｔｈａｔ ｔｈｅ ｐｒｏｍｉｓｅｓ ｔｈｅｙ ｍａｋｅ ｗｉｌｌ ｂｅ ｅｎｆｏｒｃｅａｂｌｅ．Ａ ｐｒｏｍｉｓｅ ｉｓ ａ ｄｅｃｌａｒａｔｉｏｎ ｔｈａｔ ｓｏｍｅｔｈｉｎｇ ｅｉｔｈｅｒ ｗｉｌｌ ｏｒ ｗｉｌｌ ｎｏｔ ｈａｐｐｅｎ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｆｕｔｕｒｅ．
合同法保证达成私人协议的双方当事人做出的承诺具有可执行性。承诺是指某事在将来会发生或者不会发生的一种声明。
所谓的“可执行性”，就是“可在法院得到执行”。所以刚才这段话，我们也可以理解为：“Ａｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ ｉｓ ａｎ ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ ｔｈａｔ ｃａｎ ｂｅ ｅｎｆｏｒｃｅｄ ｉｎ ａ ｃｏｕｒｔ ｏｆ ｌａｗ ｏｒ ｅｑｕｉｔｙ． Ｉｔ ｉｓ ｆｏｒｍｅｄ ｂｙ ｔｗｏ ｏｒ ｍｏｒｅ ｐａｒｔｉｅｓ，ｗｈｏ ａｇｒｅｅ ｔｏ ｐｅｒｆｏｒｍ， ｏｒ ｒｅｆｒａｉｎ ｆｒｏｍ ｐｅｒｆｏｒｍｉｎｇ， ｓｏｍｅ ａｃｔ ｎｏｗ ｏｒ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｆｕｔｕｒｅ．”
了解了合同的基本概念，我们下面来研究更加细节的问题：
（一）合同的类型
合同的类型多样，种类复杂，但其中最重要的有两种分类：第一种分类是将合同分成双务合同（ｂｉｌａｔｅｒａｌ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ）和单务合同（ｕｎｉｌａｔｅｒａｌ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ）。
第二种分类是将合同分成明示合同（ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ）和默示合同（ｉｍｐｌｉｅｄ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ）。
１． 双务合同１和单务合同２：
可以这样说，在合同中大部分的合同都是双务的，也就是合同的订立由两方来完成，并往往包含着相互之间所作的承诺（ｒｅｃｉｐｒｏｃａｌ ｐｒｏｍｉｓｅ）。
单务合同在所有的合同中数量是很少的，比较典型的单务合同有馈赠合同。
Ｉｎ ａ ｕｎｉｌａｔｅｒａｌ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ， ｏｎｌｙ ｏｎｅ ｐａｒｔｙ ｗｉｌｌ ｍａｋｅ ａ ｐｒｏｍｉｓｅ ａｎｄ ｉｓ ｏｂｌｉｇａｔｅｄ ｔｏ ｐｅｒｆｏｒｍ ｉｔ ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇ ｔｏｔｈｅ ｔｅｒｍｓ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ．
在单务合同中，只有一方作出承诺，并且负有根据合同条款履行合同的义务。
２． 明示合同和默示合同：
明示合同广泛运用在商业领域，是最常见的形式。
明示合同指的是：
Ａｎ ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ ｉｓ ａｎ ｅｘｐｌｉｃｉｔ ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ ｉｎ ｗｈｉｃｈ ｔｈｅ ｐａｒｔｉｅｓ ｓｐｅｌｌ ｏｕｔ ｔｈｅ ｔｅｒｍｓ ａｎｄ ｍａｎｉｆｅｓｔ ｔｈｅｉｒａｓｓｅｎｔ ｅｉｔｈｅｒ ｉｎ ｗｒｉｔｔｅｎ ｏｒ ｏｒａｌ ｆｏｒｍ．
美国合同法（上）
（李湛意 上海外国语大学法学院）
法律英语讲座之四
３４
明示合同指双方当事人规定合同条款，并以口头或书面方式表示同意的明确协议。
Ｂｙ ｃｏｎｔｒａｓｔ， ａｎ ｉｍｐｌｉｅｄ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ ｉｓ ａ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ ｔｈａｔ ｉｓ ｉｎｆｅｒｒｅｄ ｔｏ ｅｘｉｓｔ ｂｙ ｔｈｅ ｌａｗ． Ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈ ｔｈｅｒｅ ｉｓ ｎｏｅｘｐｌｉｃｉｔ ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ ｔｈｅ ｐａｒｔｉｅｓ， ｂｅｈａｖｉｏｒ ａｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｃｉｒｃｕｍｓｔａｎｃｅｓ ｄｅｍｏｎｓｔｒａｔｅ ａ ｔａｃｉｔ ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｔｈａｔ ａ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ ｅｘｉｓｔｓ．
相比之下，默示合同是依法而存在的协议，尽管当事人之间没有明确的协议，但行为和实际情况可以证明合同当事人之间含蓄地理解合同的存在。
（二）合同成立的要件（ｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓ ｏｆ ａ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ）
在美国的合同法里，合同的成立基本要符合以下五个条件：
１． 订立合同的能力（ｃａｐａｃｉｔｙ ｔｏ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ）
２． 当事人意思表示一致（ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ）
３． 存在对价支持 （ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎ）
４． 合法内容 （ｌｅｇａｌ ｐｕｒｐｏｓｅ）
５． 形式要件（ｃｏｒｒｅｃｔ ｆｏｒｍ）
具体来说，是这样表述的：
（１） Ｉｔ ｍｕｓｔ ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅ ｔｗｏ ｏｒ ｍｏｒｅ ｐａｒｔｉｅｓ ｈａｖｉｎｇ ｔｈｅ ｃａｐａｃｉｔｙ ｔｏ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ．
（２） Ｉｔ ｍｕｓｔ ｓｈｏｗ ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ， ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇ ｏｆｆｅｒ， ａｃｃｅｐｔａｎｃｅ， ａｎｄ ｍｕｔｕａｌｉｔｙ．
（３） Ｉｔ ｍｕｓｔ ｂｅ ｍａｄｅ ｆｏｒ ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎ．
（４） Ｉｔ ｍｕｓｔ ｂｅ ｆｏｒ ａ ｌｅｇａｌ ｐｕｒｐｏｓｅ．
（５） Ｉｔ ｍｕｓｔ ｂｅ ｉｎ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｒｒｅｃｔ ｆｏｒｍ．
要注意的是，对于ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ和ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ，可以分别翻译为“协议”和“合同”，在中国法律中，似乎没有什么区别。但是，根据普通法规定，有要约（ｏｆｆｅｒ）和承诺（ａｃｃｅｐｔａｎｃｅ），便是一个ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ，而ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ只有在采取书面形式（ｄｅｅｄ）或有对价支持（ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎ）的情况下，才能成为ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ，具有法律效力。
同时，还要注意的是，合同可能部分可执行性（ｐａｒｔｉａｌｌｙ ｅｎｆｏｒｃｅａｂｌｅ）或完全可执行性（ｆｕｌｌｙｅｎｆｏｒｃｅａｂｌｅ）。下面的这段话可以帮助读者更好地理解：
Ｖａｌｉｄ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔｓ ａｒｅ ｐｒｏｐｅｒｌｙ ｅｘｅｃｕｔｅｄ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔｓ ｔｈａｔ ｃａｎｎｏｔ ｒｉｇｈｔｆｕｌｌｙ ｂｅ ｏｖｅｒｔｈｒｏｗｎ ｏｒ ｓｅｔ ａｓｉｄｅ． Ｖｏｉｄｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔｓ ｈａｖｅ ｎｏ ｌｅｇａｌ ｆｏｒｃｅ ｗｈａｔｓｏｅｖｅｒ． Ｖｏｉｄａｂｌｅ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔｓ ｈａｖｅ ｓｏｍｅ ｄｅｆｅｃｔ ｂｕｔ ｍａｙ ｓｔｉｌｌ ｂｅ ｅｎｆｏｒｃｅａｂｌｅｉｆ ｏｎｅ ｐａｒｔｙ ｄｅｃｉｄｅｓ ｎｏｔ ｔｏ ｈａｖｅ ｔｈｅｍ ｓｅｔ ａｓｉｄｅ．
有效合同是已经得到恰当履行的合同，在法律上已不得推翻或撤销。无效合同本身无法律效力。可撤销合同自身有一定的缺陷，但如果一方决定不撤销仍然可以执行。
下面我们来讲一讲合同成立的要件的具体内容。
一、订立合同的能力：
为了使合同的订立有效，也为了保护一些不具备合同订立的人的利益受到保护，以下人士是不具备订立合同的能力的，他们是：
（１）低于法定年龄的人
Ｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌｓ ａｒｅ ｎｏｔ ｌｅｇａｌｌｙ ｃｏｍｐｅｔｅｎｔ ｔｏ ｅｎｔｅｒ ｉｎｔｏ ａ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ ｕｎｔｉｌ ｔｈｅｙ ｒｅａｃｈ ｔｈｅ ａｇｅ ｏｆ ｌｅｇａｌ ｍａｊｏｒｉｔｙ．在未达法定年龄之前，个人在法律上是不具备订立合同的能力的。
Ｕｎｄｅｒ ｔｈｅ ａｇｅ ｏｆ １８， ａ ｐｅｒｓｏｎ ｉｓ ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｅｄ ａｎ ＂ｉｎｆａｎｔ＂ ｏｒ ＂ｍｉｎｏｒ＂ ｉｎ ｔｅｒｍｓ ｏｆ ｌａｗ．
１８岁以下人士在法律上视为未成年人。
ｌｅｇａｌ ｍａｊｏｒｉｔｙ 指的是“法定的成年的状态”；ｌｅｇａｌ ｍｉｎｏｒｉｔｙ 则是“法律上未成年的状态”。ｍｉｎｏｒ指的是这些未成年人。ｉｎｆａｎｔ 和ｍｉｎｏｒ 都是法律上对“未成年人”的称呼。法律英语
关于法定年龄，一般普通法上认为是２１岁，但许多州根据自身的情况也作了相应的调整。同时，出于实际需要，法律上也会允许未到法定年龄的公民签订一些与自身利益相关的合同，如与自身生存、医疗、教育等有关的合同。
（２）存在思维障碍的人（ｍｅｎｔａｌ ｉｎｆｉｒｍｉｔｙ）
这些人包括了精神疾病患者、智障患者、老年痴呆症病人、酗酒者及吸毒者等。
Ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔｓ ｅｎｔｅｒｅｄ ｉｎｔｏ ｂｙ ｔｈｅ ｍｅｎｔａｌｌｙ ｉｎｆｉｒｍ， ｌｉｋｅ ｔｈｏｓｅ ｅｎｔｅｒｅｄ ｉｎｔｏ ｂｙ ｍｉｎｏｒｓ， ａｒｅ ｖｏｉｄａｂｌｅ ｒａｔｈｅｒ ｔｈａｎｖｏｉｄ．
同未成年人订立的合同一样，精神不健全者订立的合同也是可撤销合同，但不是无效合同。下面两段话是法律上的具体规定：
Ｔｈｅ ｉｎａｂｉｌｉｔｙ ｔｏ ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄ ｉｓ ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓａｌｌｙ ａｃｃｅｐｔｅｄ ｂｙ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｕｒｔｓ． Ｉｔ ｄｏｅｓ ｎｏｔ ｄｅｐｅｎｄ ｕｐｏｎ ｗｈｅｔｈｅｒ ｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒ ｐａｒｔｙ ｗａｓ ａｗａｒｅ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｍｅｎｔａｌ ｄｉｓａｂｉｌｉｔｙ： Ａｔ ｉｓｓｕｅ ｉｓ ｓｉｍｐｌｙ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔｉｎｇ ｐａｒｔｙ＇ｓ ｃａｐａｃｉｔｙ ａｔ ｔｈｅ ｔｉｍｅｔｈｅ ａｇｒｅｅｍｅｎｔ ｗａｓ ｍａｄｅ． Ｎｏｒ ｉｓ ａ ｐｅｒｓｏｎ＇ｓ ｏｖｅｒａｌｌ ｍｅｎｔａｌ ｓｔａｔｅ ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔ． Ｔｈｕｓ， ｉｔ ｉｓ ｓｕｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｔ ｆｏｒ ａ ｓｅｎｉｌｅｐｅｒｓｏｎ ｔｏ ｈａｖｅ ａ ｌｕｃｉｄ ｉｎｔｅｒｖａｌ ｉｎ ｏｒｄｅｒ ｔｏ ｃｏｎｃｌｕｄｅ ａ ｖａｌｉｄ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ．
Ｔｈｅ ｉｎａｂｉｌｉｔｙ ｔｏ ａｃｔ ｉｎ ａ ｒｅａｓｏｎａｂｌｅ ｗａｙ， ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ， ｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｓ ｃａｓｅｓ ｉｎ ｗｈｉｃｈ ｐｅｏｐｌｅ ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄ ｔｈｅ ｎａｔｕｒｅａｎｄ ｃｏｎｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅｓ ｏｆ ｔｈｅｉｒ ａｃｔｉｏｎｓ ｂｕｔ ａｒｅ ｕｎａｂｌｅ ｔｏ ｃｏｎｔｒｏｌ ｔｈｅｍ． Ｓｕｃｈ ｍａｙ ａｖｏｉｄ ａ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ ｏｎｌｙ ｉｆ ｔｈｅ ｏｔｈｅｒｐａｒｔｙ ｋｎｅｗ ｏｒ ｈａｄ ｒｅａｓｏｎ ｔｏ ｋｎｏｗ ｏｆ ｔｈｅ ｉｍｐａｉｒｍｅｎｔ． Ａ ｐｅｒｓｏｎ ｗｈｏ ｗｉｌｌｆｕｌｌｙ ｂｅｃｏｍｅｓ ｉｎｔｏｘｉｃａｔｅｄ ｂｕｔａｐｐｅａｒｓ ｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙ ｎｏｒｍａｌ ｗｉｌｌ ｂｅ ｂｏｕｎｄ ｂｙ ｔｈｅ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ．
注释：ｉｎａｂｉｌｉｔｙ ｔｏ ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄ 理解不能
…ａ ｓｅｎｉｌｅ ｐｅｒｓｏｎ ｔｏ ｈａｖｅ ａ ｌｕｃｉｄ ｉｎｔｅｒｖａｌ ｉｎ ｏｒｄｅｒ ｔｏ ｃｏｎｃｌｕｄｅ ａ ｖａｌｉｄ ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ
老年人利用清醒时刻来订立有效的合同
ｉｎｔｏｘｉｃａｔｅｄ ａ．喝醉的，极其兴奋的
ｉｍｐａｉｒｍｅｎｔ ｎ．损害
（未完待续）
（
接上页）书山有路
十年积累，再创佳绩
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语高级口译资格证书考试”是检测学生综合英（孙 静 上海外语教育出版社）
语水平、特别是口译水平的一种有效形式，涵盖了对学生英语听、说、读、写、译等方面知识结构掌握程度的检测。该项目于１９９５年启动，由上海市委组织部、市人事局、市教育委员会和市成人教育委员会组织和确认，由上海市高校浦东继续教育中心具体负责，为“九十年代上海紧
英语知识 北京天译时代翻译公司在翻译有着多年的翻译经验，接下来给大家总结了在法律翻译中典型句型Otherwise翻译技巧。供大家学习和了解。Otherwise句型通常用来英语翻译的表述有以下几种意思：1、除……外；2、其他……主要有三种搭配： 1. 跟unless引导的句子（让步状语从句）连用，表示“除外”含义。 2. 置放在连词or之后使用，表示“及其他”的意思。 3. 与than一起，通常用来否定句子的主语。意思是“除……外”，这里需要指出的是，“otherwise than”通常指“除以……方式之外”，这是该句型区别于“unless……otherwise”的特点。第一、与unless搭配，表示“除外”含义。In this Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires, “state” means a territory or group of territories having its own law of nationality. (Laws of Hong Kong, Cap.30, Wills Ordinance, Art. 2) 在本条例中﹐除文意另有所指外，“国家”指拥有本身国籍法的领域或一组领域。 A notice under subjection (1) shall, unless it otherwise provides, apply to the income from any property specified therein as it applies to the property itself. 根据第（1）款发出的通知书﹐除其中另有订定外﹐亦适用于通知书内指明的财产的收入﹐一如适用于该项财产本身。In this contract, unless the context otherwise requires, “goods” means……在本协议所称“货物”，除条款另有规定外，是指……Unless in any enactment it is otherwise provided……除成文法另有规定外……由此可见，在otherwise和unless搭配使用时，unless放在从句句首，而otherwise放在主语和谓语之间，即：unless+主语+otherwise+谓语如果使用被动语态，则otherwise放在主语和be动词后面，谓语的过去分词前面，即：unless+主语+be动词
法律英语翻译技巧（二）法学语言与法学语言翻译 例1：The law holds that the individual is responsible for his acts. The law also indicates what is good and right, and what may and should be done. It also indicates what is evil and wrong, and should not and may not be done. The law further holds that what is evil and wrong is a crime and may not be done, and if done, renders the doer liable to punishment. The law also recognizes the principle that man has free will and that, with certain exceptions, he exercises free will in commission of any crime that he may commit. 译文1：法律认为公民应对自己的行为负责。法律还规定什么是美好的和正确的，规范了哪些事是允许做或应该做的。同样，法律规范了什么是邪恶的和错误的。法律还进一步明确规定哪些邪恶的错误的事是不能做的犯罪行为看，如果某人做了这样的事，那么该行为就要受到惩罚。同样，法律还承认这样一个原则，每个公民除犯罪自由外都具有自由意志，如果某人在各种违法活动中实施其自由意志，那么他就可能触犯法律。 译文2：法律规定人人应对自己的行为承担责任，分清善良和正义，规范了人们的行为准则；法律还认为，作孽枉法即是犯罪，法不可恕，
最牛英语口语培训模式：躺在家里练口语，全程外教一对一，三个月畅谈无阻！ 洛基英语，免费体验全部在线一对一课程：（报名网址） Many a young person tells me he wants to be a writer. I always __1__ such people, but I also explain that there’sa big difference between "being a writer" and writing. In most cases these individuals are dreaming of __2__ and fame, notthe long hours alone at a typewriter. "You’ve got to want to write," I say to them, "not want to be a writer."The reality is that writing is a __3__, private and poor-paying affair. For every writer kissed by fortune there arethousands more whose longing is never __4__. When I left a 20-year career in the US. Coast Guard to become a freelancewriter(自由撰稿人), I had no __5__ at all. What I did have was a friend who found me my room in a New York apartment building. It didn’t even matter that it was __6__and had no bathroom. I immediately bought a used manual typewriter and feltlike a __7__ writer.After a year or so, however, I still hadn’t gotten a break and began to __8__ myself. It was so hard to sell a storythat __9__ made enough to eat. But I knew I wanted to write. I had dreamed about it for years. I wasn’t going to be one ofthose people who die wondering, what if? I would keeo putting my dream to the test----even though it meant living with __10__and fear of failure. This is the Shadow land of hope, and anyone with a dream learn to live there. A) barely B) genuine C) rewarded D) doubt E) lonely F) poverty G) persuade H) prospects I) uncertainty J)impossibly K) encourage L)awarded M) alone N)wealth O)cold 【答案】 1.选K)。此处应填动词的原形。可选项有doubt, persuade, encourage, 但由always推知，作者是在鼓励那些想要成为作家的人，而不是怀疑也不是说服，故排除doubt和persuade而选encourage。 2.选N)。由空格后的fame可知，此处应填名词。可选项有prospects和wealth，但由dreaming of 与第二段中The reality is... poor-paying可推知，那些想当作家的人梦想的是金钱和名誉，而不是前途，故排除prospects而选wealth。
一、中考英语阅读理解汇编 1．阅读下面短文，从每题所给的A、B、C三个选项中，选出最佳选项。 What will the world of the future be like? There are plenty of people who are happy to give their opinion of what we will be doing in 2050. Here are two predictions about the world of tomorrow. When we dream about the future, many like to think of owning a personal flying car. The advantages are obvious. This technology would allow total freedom of movement. We could fly at 480 km per hour, avoiding traffic lights and busy roads. However, some people believe there will be problems with traffic control. If the cars become popular, there is likely to be air traffic jam. Another big problem is mechanical failure. What will happen if the cars stop working? These are problems we must expect if flying cars become a reality. Three-dimensional printing is another new technology with exciting possibilities. 3D printers are used to build an object with liquid plastic. They build the object layer by layer until it is complete. Car companies already use 3D printers to make life-size models of car parts, and medical companies use the technology to make man-made body parts. As we move into the future, 3D printing will revolutionize the way we shop, the way we manufacture and the way we treat sick people. The disadvantage is that such equipment will be extremely expensive. So in the future, we might be able to fly to work or print out new shoes. Although there are some problems to solve before this will be possible, we can certainly dream of a world where technology makes life easier and safer for millions of people. （1）What is the passage mainly about? A. Environmental protection. B. The world of tomorrow. C. Advantages of technology. （2）What do we learn from the passage? A. Some people think technology development may bring new problems B. 3D printing can bring great changes to our life and its equipment is cheap. C. The flying cars won't bring air traffic jam even when they become popular.
练习1：外国合营者如果有意以落后的技术和设备进行欺骗，造成损失的，应赔偿损失。If the foreign joint venturer causes any losses by deception through the intentional use of backward technology and equipment, it shall pay compensation for the losses. 修改提示：单复数考虑不周；用语不够简洁。 答案（修改要点）：causes any losses →causes any loss(es) 造成一项或多项损失时都应当赔偿，不能仅用复数形式。 pay compensation for the losses →pay compensation therefor (therefor=for that/them) 练习2：人民法院、人民检察院和公安机关办理刑事案件，应当分工负责，互相配合，互相制约，以保证准确有效地执行法律。 原译文：The people’s courts, people’s procuratorates and public s ecurity organs shall, in handling criminal cases, divide their functions, each taking responsibility for its own work, and they shall co-ordinate their efforts and check each other to ensure correct and effective enforcement of law. 修改提示：“分工负责”，应理解为：侧重点在“负责”，而非“分工”，即分工过程中各负其责；respective 比own 更为妥当、准确；原来的译文中，and they shall …比较啰嗦，更严重的问题是，使to ensure …割断了与divide their functions 的联系。 答案（修改要点）：in handling criminal cases, divide their functions, each taking responsibility for its own work, and they shall co-ordinate their efforts and check each other to ensure correct and effective enforcement of law.→… in handling criminal cases, take responsibility for their respective work while dividing functions, co-ordinate, and check each other, to ensure correct and effective enforcement of law. 练习3：商标注册人享有商标专用权，受法律保护。 原译文：Trademark registrants shall enjoy the right to exclusive use of their trademarks and shall be protected by law. 修改提示：商标专用权的译文“貌合神离”，立法原意是“商标专有权”；受法律保护的主语有些歧义，可加括号处理；原文shall滥用，因为并未刻意强调“必须，一定要”。 答案（修改为）：Trademark registrants have the exclusive trademark right, (and are) protected by law. 练习4：被告人的犯罪情节极其严重、社会影响极其恶劣、社会危害极其严重。 原译文：The extremely serious circumstances of the offense committed by the accused have brought abominable influence and severe hazard to the whole society. 修改提示：bring的用法有些生硬，动宾搭配不太适当。 答案（修改为）：have brought abominable influence and severe hazard to the whole society. → have exerted an abominable influence and posed a severe hazard to society. (exert, vt. 施加，产生，如exert pressure on, exert an influence on; abominable, adj. 可恶的，极坏的；pose v. 提出，形成，成为；使摆好姿势pose a problem; pose an obstacle/a threat to …) 练习5：买卖双方同意按下列条款由卖方出售，买方购进下列货物：货号; 品名及规格；数量；单价；总值(数量及总值均有_____%的增减, 由卖方决定)；生产国和制造厂家；包装；唛头；装运期限；装运口岸；目的口岸；保险；
考研英语阅读理解模拟试题及答案(三) Passage 11 Dream is a story that a personwatchesor even takes part in during sleep. Dream events are imaginary, but they are related to real experiences and needs in the dreamer's life. They seem real while they are taking place. Some dreams are pleasant, others are annoying, and still others are frightening. Everyone dreams, but some persons never recall dreaming. Others remember only a little about a dream they had just before awakening and nothing about earlier dreams. No one recalls all his dreams. Dreams involve little logical thought. In most dreams, the dreamer cannot control what happens to him. The story may be confusing, and things happen that would not happen in real life. People see in most dreams, but they may also hear, smell, touch, and taste in their dreams. Most dreams occur in color. but persons who have been blind since birth do not see at all in dreams. Dreams are a product of the sleeper's mind. They
（英语）英语阅读理解练习题20篇及解析 一、高中英语阅读理解 1．阅读理解 Many people have long dreamed of being able to fly around as simply as riding a bicycle. Yet the safety and strength of a flying bike was always a big problem. Over the past 10 years, developments in technology have moved the dream of personal flying vehicles closer to reality. Now, two groups of inventors say such vehicles may be available soon. The British company Malloy Aeronautics has developed a prototype (原型) of its flying bicycle. Grant Stapleton, marketing sales director of Malloy Aeronautics, says the Hoverbike is able to get in and out of small spaces very quickly. It can be moved across continents very quickly because it can be folded and packed, he adds. Mr. Stapleton says safety was the company's main concern. He says the designers solved the safety issue by using overlapping rotors ( 交叠式旋翼 )to power the vehicle. The company is testing a full-size prototype of the Hoverbike, which will most likely be used first by the police and emergency rescue teams. In New Zealand, the Martin Aircraft Company is also testing a full-size prototype of its personal flying device, called the Jetpack. It can fly for more than 30 minutes, up to 1,000 meters high and reach a speed of 74 kilometers per hour. Peter Coker is the CEO of Martin Aircraft Company. He said the Jetpack “is built around safety from the start. In his words, reliability is the most important element of it. We have safety built into the actual structure itself, very similar to a Formula One racing car.” The Jetpack uses a gasoline-powered engine that produces two powerful jet streams. Mr. Coker says it also has a parachute (降落伞) that can be used should there be an emergency. “It starts to work at very low altitude and actually saves both the aircraft and the pilot,” he adds. Mr. Coker says the Jetpack will be ready for sale soon. （1）We can learn from the passage that the Hoverbike . A. can hardly get in and out of small spaces quickly B. can fly for over 30 minutes, up to 1,000 meters high C. has been used by the police and emergency rescue teams D. can be transported quickly after being folded and packed （2）The writer uses the example of For One racing car to show that . A. the Jetpack is very safe and reliable B. the engine of the Jetpack is powerful C. the actual structure of the Jetpack is unique D. the Jetpack can reach a great speed and height （3）The underlined word “it” in the last paragraph refer s to. A. the jet stream B. the engine C. the Jetpack D. the parachute （4）What is the authors main purpose of writing the passage? A. To describe the problems of inventing flying vehicles. B. To introduce the latest development of flying vehicles. C. To show the differences between two flying vehicles. D. To advertise the two personal
功能对等原则在法律英语翻译中的应用 周雪 摘要：世界上，每一个国家和地区的文化，都有自己独特的魅力。笔者被西方文化的差异所吸引，在探究法律英语的基础上，糅合了中西方不同的法律文化，对国际知名学者奈达所提出的“动态对等”原则进行了详细的解析探讨。同时，对如何在实际翻译工作中对更好的结合这一原则以保证法律英语的准确性发表了自己的看法。 关键词：功能对等翻译原则法律英语翻译应用 作者简介：周雪，女，牡丹江师范学院应用英语学院，2012级英语专业学生，黑龙江牡丹江，157000；指导老师：曹书 一、法律英语翻译的研究背景和意义 加入WTO以来，中国与西方国家的经济关系越来越近，而中国经济也更紧密地连接在国际事务中，将不可避免地产生问题，解决大量问题不会从外语中分离，尤其是外国法律语言。加强法律语言的研究，尤其是法律英语一定会保证中国进行国外经济交易的成功。随着世界上外部法律文化交流的增多，每年都有大量中国政策和法律文件必须翻译成外文，让世界更多地了解中国的法律和政策。同时，为了向发达国家学习，很多外国法律和法学著作已经被翻译成中文。本文试图专注于法律英语的语言特征，去探讨法律翻译的特点。 如今，法律英语已成为全球化趋势下的一个突出的专业语言。然而，法律英语有独特词汇、句子结构和语篇组织，其翻译不是一个简单的工作。一般来说，法律翻译目前只关注完成日常的法律翻译，而不是学习或研究法律翻译的相关理论。事实上，法律翻译如果没有相关的理论研究不可能快速获得发展并实现繁荣。多年来，法律文本的翻译策略一直是翻译界研究的重点。归化、异化、直译或释义，人们似乎永远无法达成共识。一些语言学家从法律或律师的角度对法律英语的语言和文体特征作了大量研究，取得了一些伟大的成果。近20年来，许多有识之士开始致力于倡导法律语言的简化。在澳大利亚，新西兰和加拿大，法律语言的简化运动得到一些成功，然而他们的成功似乎不太被重视并应用。 随着改革开放的发展，经济、文化的传播和科学技术的不断扩大，中国与其
摘要: 随着我国对外交往日益频繁，法律英语翻译发挥着越来越重要的作用。实践中法律英语翻译有着各种不同的技巧与方法，但翻译的准确、同一、精炼、规范等原则却必须共同遵循。 关键词：法律英语；翻译；原则 一、准确性是法律文体翻译的根本 我国著名资产阶级启蒙思想家，翻译界的老前辈严复根据自己的翻译实践，曾提出过“信、达、雅”翻译标准。“信”即译文要忠实于原作内容，这个翻译原则在法律文体的翻译中非常重要。法律是由国家权力机关制定或认可的社会规范。要使人们准确理解法律内容，严格依法办事，做到有法必依、执法必严、违法必究，那么在“有法可依”这个环节上，就必须使法律条文的表述做到明确无误。律语言必须准确、确凿、严密，这是法律的社会职能决定的，也是法律语体区分于其他功能文本的根本特点。 法学家的文字表述必须比其他所有的人的文字表述更加准确。大多数作者都可指望其著作被善意地阅读，即人们能以一种虔诚之心去读懂她的内容。然而，对一些读者，法学家却总是怀着一种惶恐之心去撰写其文，有的人心怀叵测试图在合同文本中钻空子以规避其违约责任，耿耿于怀的继承人则希望以一种能够推翻遗嘱人意愿的方式来宣读遗嘱；刑事被告则企图歪曲法律条文以使罪行逃脱法网，所有的人都为了自己的目的而试图曲解文义。”[1]Henry Weihofen所说的这些情况在实践中时有发生。比如有的译者在涉外销售合同的翻译中把“earnest money”即具有担保性质的“定金”译成“订金”，以致在外商违约时，“订金”被解释为预付款，使外商逃脱了双倍返还定金的责任。又如：陪审团宣告被告谋杀罪不成立。译文：The jury acquitted the respondent of the charge of murder.分析：该句中的“被告”一词应用“the accused”，而不能用“respondent”，因为“respondent”指的是民事案件的答辩人即被告，尤指离婚案的被告(defendant in a civil case, especially，in a divorce one)，而“the accused”则是刑事案件的被告(the person charged in a criminal case)。实际上，“原告”和“被告”在译成英文时因不同的案子而使用不同的词语。民事案件的“原告”和“被告”分别为“plaintiff”和“defendant”；离婚案件的“原告”和“被告”分别为“petitioner”和“respondent”；海事案件的“原告”和“被告”分别为“libellant”和“libellee”；刑事案件的“自诉人/公诉人”和“被告人”则分别为“private prosecutor/public prosecutor”和“the accused”。不难看出，如果译者不熟悉这些词语，就很难准确反映当事人在诉讼中的地位。 法律文书的内容往往涉及当事人之间的权利义务关系，因此，文中用语常常采用“必须”、“应”此类表示当事人权利义务关系的，意思肯定明确的情态动词。然而英语中此类情态动词的意思较为相近，往往被混淆误用。我国《中外合资经营企业法实施条例》第五十条规定：“合营企业所需的机器设备……在同等条件下，应尽先在中国购买”。本条条文却被译成“… a joint venture should give first priority to Chinese sources”。译文中以“should”来译“应当”，似有不妥。其理由有两点，一是因为“应”在法律条文中就是“must”，“have to”即汉语“必须”之意。而“should”在此方面的意味不及“must”和“have to”强，甚至尚不及“ought to”强。二是因为“should”表示法律义务，只表示一般义务或道义上的义务，而“shall”在法律文件中有其特殊的含义，意为“应当承担的责任和义务”，带有指令性和强制性，是一种法律义务，不如此则产生违反法律义务的后果。由此可见，原译文用“should”来强调当事人的责任和义务，并没有体现合营企业在此问题上所承担严格责任，从而有损法律的严肃性。相反，此处以“shall”来代替“should”，更能明确当事人的义务。可见法律译文的准确是法律翻译的根本，而翻译失真则是法律翻译的大患。法律文体的翻译必须步步为营。 二、法律英语翻译同一律原则 法律文字之汉译英，为了维护同一概念、内涵或事物在法律上始终同一，避免引起歧义，词
Legal English (revised version for the students) Ch.1 The Main Features of Legal English 一、法律英语的英译： David Mellinkoff（加州大学洛杉矶分校法学院教授）：《The Language of the Law》1963 1.legal English---Lawful English Legal parlance（说法、用语）/legal lingo（行话、隐语）/legal jargon（行话、黑话）/legalese( 法律八股文)/language of jurisprudence(法理语言) 2. the English Language of the Law or shortened as “the language of the law” 3. 法律英语与法学英语 二、法律英语的范围： 是否凡是涉及法律的英语（词汇、表达方法、句子结构……）都是法律英语？ 英美法学界所公认的法律英语主要是指普通法国家（common-law countries）的法律人所用的习惯语言（customary language），包括某些词汇、短语，或具有特色的一些表达方法(mode of expressions)。 三、法律英语的主要特点： I. precise or exact (准确) 正常情况下，起草法律文件时，用词造句务必十分精准（with great exactness），因为一旦笔者的思想、观点、企图落实成文字，即成为法庭判断是非的重要依据，因为按严格解释原则(principle of strict construction)或唯名论原则(principle of nominalism)，尽管实践中还存在推测意图原则(principle of presumed intent)，但其不占主导地位，书面文字仍然是法官解释法律文件的唯一依据。 实务中鉴于对法律文件中文字的理解不一，也是常有纠纷出现： e.g. The Charter required that directors “shall be elected on a vote of the stockholders representing not less than two-thirds of outstanding capital st ock of the corporation.” 甲方理解成：被选上董事的人需三分之二的股东投票赞成(a candidate to be elected needs the votes of two-thirds of the stockholders ) 乙方则认为：选董事时须有三分之二的股东出席(two-thirds of the stockholders must be present at the meeting at which the election is held) What’s the judge’s opinion? e.g. 一个阿肯色州的美国人临终前写了一个遗嘱，遗嘱写道： The remainder of the testator’s property should be “divided equally between all of our nephews and nieces on my wife’s side and my niece.” 问题出在对“between”一词的理解上。立遗嘱人妻子一边的外甥和外甥女加在一起共有22个。这句话是指立遗嘱人的遗产的一半归其妻子方的22个外甥和外甥女，另一半归其本人一方的外甥女？还是指将遗产在双方的外甥外甥女中平均分配呢？ 为达准确之目的，常使用下列招法： 1. 使用专门术语（下文有述） 2. 重复使用具有绝对含义的词汇，如all , none, perpetuity, never, unavoidable; 3. 使用具有绝对限制含义的短语：
初三英语阅读理解模拟试题 9. Mathew Brady______________. A.was very lifelike B. was famous for his unusual pictures C. was quite strong D. took many pictures of moving people 10.This passage tells us_____________. A. how photography was developed B. how to show your ideas and feelings in pictures C. how to take pictures in the world D. how to use different cameras （C）
Americans with small families own a small car or a large one. If both parents are working, they usually have two cars. When the family is large, one of the cars is sold and they will buy a van(住房汽车) A small car can hold(容纳)four persons and a large car can hold six persons but it is very crowded(拥挤). A van hold seven persons easily, so a family three children could ask their grandparents to go on a holiday travel They could all travel together. Mr.Hagen and his wife had a third child last year. This made them sell a second car and bus a van. Their children sixth and seventh seat are used to put other things, for a family of five must carry many suitcases(衣箱)when they travel. When they arrive at their grandparents’home , the suitcases are brought into the two seats can then carry the grandparents.
班级: 姓名: 考场: 座号: 密封线 An old lady in a plane had a blanket (毯子over her head and she did not want to take it off . The air hostess spoke to her, but the old lady said, “I have never been in a plane before , and I am frightened. I am going to keep this blanket over my head until we are back on the ground again !” Then the captain came. He said, “Madam, I am the captain of this plane. The weather is fine, there are no clouds in the sky, and everything is going very well. ”But she continued to hide. So the captain turned and started to go back. Then the old lady looked out from under the blanket with one eye and said, “I am sorry, young man, but I don’t like planes and I am never going to fly again. But I’ll say one thing, ”She continued kindly, “You and yo ur wife keep your plane very clean!” 1. An old lady had _________ . A. glasses B. a blanket over her head C. a coat D. a basket 2. A. She didn’t want to ________ . A. take it off B. turn it off C. get on D. talk about it 3. _________ spoke to her . A. The air hostess