下定义：1.IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.Direct from the external form of syntactic structure, analyze the direct component of the sentence.2. Endocentric Constructions (向心结构)ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.3.Exocentric Constructions (离心结构)EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is funct ionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or“Head” inside the group, usually including：the basic sentence ；the prepositional phrasethe predicate (verb + object) constructionthe connective (be + complement) construction4.Relations of Position（位置关系）Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.positionality组合原则--- a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of asentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.6.Performatives(施为句):Utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.ngue（语言）--refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.8.Parole --refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language.petence: a language user‟s underlying knowled ge about the system of rules.10. Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.11.Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.12.Bound morphemes--Morphemes which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme.13.Variable words(可变化词) --- they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word mayhave different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.walk, walks, walking, walked14.Closed-class word(封闭词类):--- a word of closed class/ a class of words whose membershipis fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.15.Displacement移位性-- means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.Such as，I like Shakespeare‟s drama；Mary comes from France.Chapter11.Design Features of Language(1) Arbitrariness 任意性(first discussed by Saussure)Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. （指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系）(2) Duality 二层性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.the lower or the basic level/ secondary units---sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into wordsthe higher level/ primary units---words which are meaningful(3) Creativity创造性Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness (递归性).e.g. /ti:/--team, teach, teeth(4) Displacement 移位性Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.I like Shakespeare‟s drama. Mary comes from France.2.Functions of languageInformative信息功能The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.Interpersonal function人际功能The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain theirstatus in a society. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves indicate various types of interpersonal relations, e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, yours truly, your obedient servant.Performative施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.e.g. I now declare you to be husband and wife.I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.I apologize.Bless you, my boy.Sui sui ping anI wish him in hell.Emotive function感情功能The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something, e.g. God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Cool, Ugh, Oh.Phatic communion寒暄交际The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.Recreational function娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby‟s babbling or a chanter‟s chanting.Metalingual function元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about language itself. That is, the speaker uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. For example, “Let me tell you what the word …book‟ means.” In this sentence, the expression“the word book” is used to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.3.Main branches of linguisticsphonology and phoneticsPhonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received. Phonology, on the other hand, is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds.Morphology 形态学Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning --- morphemes and word-formation processes.Syntax 句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.Semantics 语义学，Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatics 语用学Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.4.Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式与规定式If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive5.Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时与历时The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.Chapter31.Morphology is generally divided into two fields:(1) Inflectional morphology屈折形态学: the study of inflections(2) Derivational morphology派生形态学：the study of word-formation2.Identification of words1. stability 稳定性Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure. Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. But it is all right for us to rearrange the constituents in a sentence to a certain degree .2. Relative uninterruptibility相对的连续性new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word.3. A minimum free form 最小的自由形式It was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form”, word being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.Classification of words(1) Variable vs. invariable words 可变化词和不变词Variable words --- they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.walk, walks, walking, walkedInvariable words---refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do nothave inflective endings. 不变词指since, when, seldom, through, hello这一类词。