• 民众恐慌 public panic • 政府频繁犯错 frequent political errors • 民众对警报习以为常，失去判断意识 public
lose judgment
•
示例
• Summers uses his words and research to reason with the reader and explain to them why plastic bags really are the correct choice. A vast majority of people are misled about all of the waste that plastic bags cause when Summers writes, “ ... plastic bags, sacks, and wraps of all kinds (not just grocery bags) make up only about 1.6 percent of all municipal solid waste materials.” This number is definitely lower than we all assume. Going into this passage, and we are left surprised. Using reusable bags is a solution that others may have come up with to attempt to create less waste; however, Summers delivers an appealing argument. “ ... plastic bag bans lead to increased health problems due to food contamination from bacteria that remain in the reusable bags.” This excerpt creates another claim that leaves the reader wondering if reusable bags are really worth it. These past two claims are connected well because they both draw the reader back to the idea of using plastic bags.
• 2.陈述事情的Cause原因可以帮助读者更加全面和深入地 了解(comprehensive and deeper understanding)作者讨论 的对象；描述事情的result结果可以帮助读者更好地做 出自己的判断（make better evaluation）
• 3.有些有信号词（as，since，due to, as a result, consequently, accordingly, result in, thus, hence, for this reason, because of this, lead to, so that ）
• 章的列罗的话， 那么读者也同样会一头雾水，不知所云，逻辑 混乱，也不会接收到文章想要传达的最核心的 内容。所以高质量的议论文必定会采用清晰的 逻辑顺序，合理的结构安排，顺畅的行文思路 来展开自己的论述。
reasoning
• 1. Reasoning—logical thinking-ties the claim and evidence together.
• 2. 不是所有文章都适合分析reasoning • 3. 常见类型： • Cause and Effect • Time Order • Comparison and Contrast • Concession • counterargument • 4. reasoning位于的位置有小有大，有时涵盖一大半
Reasoning
Logos
consider
• 1. the common characteristics between ethos and pathos
• 2. what is an article rather than separate sentences or paragraphs
• 1.evidence论据解决的是“用什么来论证”的 问题，pathos是写作的风格类；而reasoning论 证解决的则是“如何使用论据证明论点”的问 题。
某个段
• Since the terrorists struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the Americans have been wondering how to respond to the frequent official warning that terrorists are planning new attacks in the near future. They feel anxious and panicky because they can’t calculate the odds including those of explosives or letters with anthrax. But it is critical that the president’s aides avoid any temptation to use security precautions as an excuse for political errors, which was already made somewhere. There is, of course, the danger that too many warnings could become mere background noise, and that somewhere down the road the public would wind up ignoring the one that really matters. The public cannot judge on a day-to-day basis whether those assessments are being made correctly. But the nation is better off frightened and informed than left happily in the dark.
文章。
• 1. The pattern of cause and effect, when used, helps readers to have a clear understanding of not only what happens or what happens first, but more importantly why something happens, which is essential for knowing about an event or supporting a claim.