定义题1. What is “intercultural communication”? P6refer to communication between people whose cultural backgrounds are distinct enough to alter their communication event.There are three kinds of things you need to learn if you want to be able to communicate effectively with Westerners. First, you need to learn a foreign language, usually English. Second, you should learn as much as possible about Western cultures. However, studying English language and Western culture is not enough. You should also learn something about what happens when people from different cultures try to communicate with each other —in other words, "intercultural communication."2.What is a culture? P13A culture is essentially a group of people who carry many of the same ideas in their heads.Culture: can been seen as shared knowledge, what people need to know in order to act appropriately in a given culture.Culture: a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people3.What are stereotypes?P13Stereotypes means very broad generalizations such as “British people are polite,”“Americans are friendly”, and so forth.It is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, character that has become fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality and is therefore false and shallow. Stereotypes may have a basis in fact, but they are too broad and shallow, and they give us the mistaken idea that a people’s culture can be summed up easily in a few short , simple statements. Stereotypes are also dangerous because they may trick us into believing that knowing a few stereotypes is the same thing as understanding another culture.4.What does “interpretation” means?P24A very important aspect of intercultural communication is “interpretation”, t he process of deciding what foreigners’ words and actions mean and why they do what they do. For example, when Xiao Li tries to understand why the taxi driver asked for so much money, she is “interpreting” his behavior.5.I n dividualist p32Individualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as individuals and emphasize the needs of individuals. In general, Western culture tends to be individualist. They view themselves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own preferences, needs, rights, and the contacts they have established with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rational analyses of the advantages and disadvantages to associating with others.6.Collectivist P32Collectivist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as members of groups (families, work units, tribes, nations), and usually consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals. Most Asian cultures, including China's, tend to be collectivist. People see themselves as parts of one or more collectives; are primarily motivated by the norms of, and duties imposed by, those collectives; are willing to give priority to the goals ofthese collectives over their own personal goals; and emphasize their connectedness to members of these cultures.7.What is “hierarchy”?P50Hierarchy is differences in rank and power. Every society has hierarchy to some degree. In other words, some people have higher rank and more power than others, perhaps because they are older, stronger, wealthier, or have some kind of official position.8.What is “culture shock”?P58“Culture shock”is often used to describe what happens whenever a person encounters a culture different from his or her own. The term culture shock describes what happens when a sojourner from culture A goes to live in culture B, and needs to adapt to life there.The constant effort and uncertainty of dealing with a foreign language and culture can lead to a condition called “culture shock”. It is a feeling of being confused and overwhelmed by life in another culture. People who experience culture shock often feel fatigued, impatient and irritable. They may also begin trying to avoid interaction with foreigners, and even become increasingly critical and hostile toward them. Foreigners in China sometimes experience culture shock — and so do Chinese who go to live in other countries.9.Low context P66The way to communicate tends to be relatively explicit and direct. In other words, people tend to put most of heir ideas and feelings plainly and openly. It’s generally considered a good thing to “get the point” and “say what you mean”, and it is largely the speaker’s responsibility to ensure that his/her message is stated in a way that is clear and easy to understand.10.High context P66High context is more indirect and subtle and listeners are expected to take more responsibility for interpreting messages correctly. People are expected to pay much attention to the context in which communication takes place and when people interpret what others mean, they often give more weight to the context than to the actual words said. In fact, people in high context cultures often view direct, explicit communication as unsophisticated or even rude.11.What is “projected cultural similarity”? P74Projected cultural similarity is a phenomenon which is the tendency to assume that people from other cultures basically think and feel more the same way we do. In other words, we sometimes assume that while foreigners may look different, dress differently, and speak different languages, "inside we are all more or less the same".12.“Loose” cultures P83“Loose” culture do not demand a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is considered normal behavior. Of course, such cultures have some consensus on what is and is not considered appropriate behavior, but the consensus is not very strong and there is often much disagreement. People in loose cultures also tend to be relatively tolerant of behavior that does not conform to cultural norms.13. “Tight” cultures P83Tight cultures expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consensus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior, and there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the culture.14.What is “ethnocentrism”? P93"Ethnocentrism" is the tendency to think of one’s own culture as being at the center of the world in other words, to assume that one’s own culture's way of thinking and acting is more natural, normal, and correct than the way people from other cultures think and act.15.What are “in-groups” and “out-groups”? P107In-Groups: “In-groups” are the people we have the most in common with and identify most closely with, such as our family, classmates, or co-workers. We also have larger in-groups such as people who are from our own region, religious group, ethnic group, or nation.Out-groups: out groups are those groups of people who we do not identify with---people from other families, regions, ethnic groups, or nations. Toward outsiders, we tend to be more critical, suspicious, and willing to pass harsh judgments.16.Collectivist culturesCollectivist generally have a high sense of loyalty and obligation to their in-groups, and will often go to great lengths to help people they consider members of their in-groups. However, they feel less obligation to outsiders. The main distinction people usually make is between “us” and “them”.17.Individualist western cultures P114While individualist westerners also treat outsiders differently from members of their out-groups, the difference is generally not so great; for example, individualists generally assist members of their in-groups as much as collectivists would, but they may offer more assistance to outsiders than collectivists would. The main distinction people usually make is between “me” and “others”.18.What are “war stories”? P125The term “war stories” originally referred to the kinds of stories soldiers would tell after experiences in battle. Now “war stories” refers more generally to any stories people tell after strange or stressful experiences, including stories about unusual encounters with foreigners. War stories naturally tend to be biased against outsiders, so they tend to reinforce negative views toward foreigners. What’s more, negative views based on an experience with one foreigner are often used as evidence to draw conclusions about foreigners in general.19.What is giving the benefit of the doubt? P142When you encounter a foreigner whose behavior seems unusual or hard to understand, you should keep an open mind and try to delay or suspend interpretation. Giving the benefit of the doubt is less likely to cause us to think or act in ways that will unnecessarily damage our relationships with foreigners.简答题(定义+评论）1. What are the problems in intercultural communication?/Why is it so hard to communicate with foreigners? P9refer to communication between people whose cultural backgrounds are distinct enough to alter their communication event. Learn about what happens when people from different cultures try to communicate with each other — in other words, "intercultural communication."Part of the problem is that there are many different languages, so it is very hard to communicate with foreigners. Also, cultures are different and it’s difficult for foreigners to understand why students acted as they did. Another part of the problem is the way foreigners handle the intercultural communication. When Chinese do or say things that seem strange to them, foreigners tend to jump to conclusions and they are more likely to jump to negative conclusions instead of considering other possible explanations for the Chinese students’ behavior.2.What are the characteristics of Chinese culture? P17定义“culture”1. collectivism----------emphasis on the doctrine of the mean2. large power distance--hierarchy3. Inter-group (in-group) harmony and avoidance of overt (covert) conflict in interpersonal relations4. hypocritical5. hypocrisy6. belief in the “naturalness, necessity, and inevitability of hierarchy.”7. inequality based on achievement, especially academic, moral, and financial achievement8. belief that “the judgment of wise people”is a better way to regulate life than rigid, artificial laws9. people exist “in and through relationship with others.”10. academic emphasis on memory, attention to detail, and lengthy homework3.What are the virtues of Chinese culture? P31定义“culture”1. formality2. hierarchy3. industriousness/diligent/assiduous4. being filial5. hard work6. modesty (modest)---humility (humble)7. thrifty—economical---frugal—frugalityment on: “Never a borrower or lender be” P32定义“individualist”Individualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as individuals and emphasize the needs of individuals. In general, Western culture tends to be individualist. They view themselves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own preferences, needs, rights, and the contacts they have established with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rational analyses of the advantages and disadvantages to associating with others.“Never a borrower or a lender be”, this sentence means that it is best to not lend money to other people and to not borrow from other people. When we lend something we risk losing both the thing we lend and the friendship with that other person. To begin with, it is because westerners are in Individualist Cultures. Individualists tend to view themselves as individuals and toemphasize the needs of individuals. Individualists feel less obligation to others, whether they are in-groups or out-groups. Secondly, because of their characteristics, their individualism, western people tend to be very independent and self-reliant. They will always solve their problems by themselves. So they don’t want ot hers to rely on them, either.5.What are some differences between an individualist culture and a collectivist one? P35定义：individualist and collectivistThere are two basic difference between cultures.One illustration of the difference between collectivist and individualist cultures can be found in the way schools are organized. Chinese students generally function as a group. They are organized into class groups and have the same courses with students in the same class. In contrast, North American students are expected to function as individuals. They generally choose courses according to their own interests and have different classmates in different courses.Parties serve as another illustration. Chinese parties often have a group focus. Western parties are different, for example, the cocktail party in which people chat together in pairs or small groups and may change conversation partners during the party.6. What are some ways in which Western societies differ in how they view the issue of equality? P51定义：equality 和hierarchyMost modern societies believe that equality is a virtue, at least to some extent. In other words, people these societies try to minimize rank and power differences, and try to place limits on the power of people in authority.Hierarchy is differences in rank and power. Every society has hierarchy to some degree. In other words, some people have higher rank and more power than others, perhaps because they are older, stronger, wealthier, or have some kind of official position.In US culture, “equality”almost always means “equality of opportunity”, not equal wealth. Americans tend to believe that, as much as possible, all people should be given an equal chance, but then people deserve whatever rewards they work for. In contrast, Western Europeans, especially, Scandinavians, tend to feel that equality of opportunity alone will not guarantee social or material equality. So these cultures place more emphasis on material equality, and their tax and social welfare systems are designed to ensure that difference in wealth between citizens is not large.7.A prescription for culture shock. P61“Culture shock” is often used to describe what happens whenever a person encounters a culture different from his or her own. The term culture shock describes what happens when a sojourner from culture A goes to live in culture B, and needs to adapt to life there.1. accept the occurrence of culture shock as natural2. learn about the host culture3. find a logical reason for everything strange or bad about the host culture4. look for the positive things in the host culture5. avoid foreigners who are critical of the host country6. do not always say critical things about host culture7. keep a good sense of humor8. find another foreigner who knows the host culture9. make friends with people from the host culture10. you won’t lose your own culture11. keep busy and active12. if you feel fatigued, take a little vacation13. prepare a presentation about your own culture8.Why does PCS cause intercultural communication problems? P74Projected cultural similarity is the tendency to assume that people from other cultures basically think and feel more the same way we do. In other words, we sometimes assume that while foreigners may look different, dress differently, and speak different languages, "inside we are all more or less the same".1. People from different culture assume they understand each other instead of asking each other what they think. Because they each expect the other person to react more or less the same way they would, they don't check to see whether or not the other person actually has the same feelings and reactions they would. For this reason, the misunderstanding become worse over time rather than getting better.2. Languages are different.3. Misinterpret non-verbal communication.4. Stereotypes and preconceptions.5. Evaluate before really understanding.9.the golden rules -Do unto others what you would have them do unto you. P77定义Projected cultural similarityThe sentence means that it’s better not to do things to others what you don’t want others do to you. This behavior shows the phenomena “Projected cultural similarity”. In our cultural system, if you don’t like thing done to you, you just don’t impose on others. It’s a kind of virtue. But from the aspect of PCS, people just assume people from other cultures view things the same way we do. What we think is right, we consider others will think it is right, too. However, it just doesn’t work out like that. Because of different cultural background, we have different interpretations of everything happened .we can not expect others to think or act the same as we do.ment on: conformity in Western cultures. P83定义：”loose culture” and “tight culture”Chinese culture is tight culture ,and western cultures are loose cultures. So conformity in western cultures is less than that in Chinese culture.Western individualist cultures tend to be “looser” than collectivist cultures. This tendency toward looseness can be seen in a variety of ways. One reflection is a widespread reluctance to pass laws that prohibit unusual behavior. Another reflection can be seen in Western advertising.ment on: What factors lead to /contribute to looseness or tightness in culture？P86定义：”loose culture” and “tight culture”1. the degree of change in the population---the more people move, the looser and individualist a society tends to be“a country on the wheels”2. the density of the population—small dense society tend to be collectivist, hence tighter. Large dense society tend to be more complex, hence not quite so tight---“a melting pot”3. the number of choices available in society---the more choices available, the more room there is for individualism--looserment on: ethnocentrism and projected cultural similarities P93定义：”ethnocentrism” and “projected cultural similarities”"Ethnocentrism" is the tendency to think of one’s own culture as being at the center of the world in other words, to assume that one’s own culture's way of thinking and acting is more natural, normal, and correct than the way people from other cultures think and act.“Projected cultural similarity” is a phenomenon which is the tendency to assume that people from other cultures basically think and feel more the same way we do. In other words, we sometimes assume that while foreigners may look different, dress differently, and speak different languages, "inside we are all more or less the same".Both of them can not be avoided or overcame in intercultural communication. These two phenomena show that every country or nation consider their own culture as the center.Ethnocentrism is taking one’s own cultural norms as the standard by which to judge people of other cultures and it is purposeful. What’s worse, it may lead to manslaughter.PCS is assuming that people of other cultures view things the same way you do---cultural assumption and it is not purposeful.13.Why are in/out-groups a problem in intercultural communication? P107定义：”in-groups” and “out-groups”1. We generally have more positive feelings toward members of our in-groups than we do toward outsiders. We trust insiders more.2. We tend to have a stronger sense of obligation to insiders than to outsiders. We feel it’s right to help insider more …3. We tend to judge in-groups and out-groups by different standards. To insiders. More generous, to outsiders, more critical, suspicious, more harsh judgmentsSo the ties of goodwill and trust between in-groups and out-groups are often relatively weak, and they break easily when there is conflict or misunderstanding.14.How do Chinese people treat in/out-group based on their own culture? P117定义：”in-groups” and “out-groups”The distinction Chinese usually make is between “us” and “them”. In other wards, there is much assistance and concern for insiders and less for those outside.Chinese often view outsiders who come to China as guests, and give them much special treatment. In part, this is because Chinese view guests as a kind of in-group and tend to treat in-group members very well.15.Characteristics of war stories. P128定义：war stories1. Desire for sympathy. We generally tell war stories to people who are likely to sympathize with us, usually people from our own culture rather than outsiders2. Desire for assurance. We want to get reassurance that our interpretation of the encounter makes sense.3. Desire to tell a good story. we tend to emphasize how unreasonable the behavior of the foreigner was, and how reasonable our own behavior was.16.Why do Americans know less about other countries? P149定义：”culture” and “ethnocentrism”1. US schools do not teach as much world history as schools in many other countries.2. The US borders on relatively few other nations, and is separated from most by large oceans.3. The power of the US means that it has more impact on other nations than other nations have on the US affairs.4. In terms of geographic size and population, the US as a very large nation, hence generates such a volume of local news that the importance of international news diminishes by comparison.5. The power of the US tempts Americans to believe that learning about other countries isn’t so important.6. The international spread of the English language and Western culture diminishes the need of Americans to learn other languages and cultures.。