Managemengt Information SystemsBy a management information system,we propose the follow alternate definition: an integrated uer/machine system (usually computerized) for providing information to support decision making in an enterprise.The key elements of this definition are—An integrated uer/machine system—For proving information—To support decision making—In an enterpriseA management information system utilizes—Computer hardware and software—Manual procedures—Models for analysis—A databaseJust as there is a logical flow of materials in the creation of a product, there is logical flow of information in a management information system.In manufacturing,raw materials move through a process that transforms the raw materials into usable products. In a similar fashion, in an information system,data are supplied to a system(input), the data are manipulated(processed),and they are transformed into information(output).In its simplest form ,a management information systemed may be depicted by an input-process-output(IPO) model(Fig.10.1). An understanding of this model is worthwhile becaue it can be used to represent all MISs.Note in that figure that the MIS, through its processing technology (of collecting, coding,storing,processing,decoding,and reporting), transforms the data coming into an enterprise into usable information.Fig.10.1 An Input-Process-Output Medel of a Management Information System We may further enhance our understanding of management information systems by discussing their general function and major elements. These systems exist in most enterprises, whether public or private, primarily to assist management in improving revenues, reducing costs and managing assets. Therefore, improving the performance of an enterprise is the ultimate objective of management infoemation systems- not the storage of data, the generation of reports,or even”getting the right information to the right person at the right time.”And MIS can best improve an enterprise’s performance by helping to improve the quality of managerial decisions.Transaction processing (TP), reporting systems(RS), and decision-support systems(DSS) are the major elements of a management infortion system.The primary role of TP in an enterprise is the collection, storage,and processing ofdata in such a way that transactions within an enterprise are described and thus the procedural actions of the enterprise supported .More specifically, a TP system may be viewed as a computer-based means of capturing transaction so that may be recreated. The out of a transaction-processing system includes stored transaction images, documents needed by an enterprise to fulfill its mainstream purposes(invoices,production orders,shipping orders,purchase orders, mailing lists, pay checks, work orders,and so forth), and listings of transaction that have occurred over a period of time (for confirmation or references).Reporting systems(RS) and decision-support systems (DSS) often are confused with each other and thus misunderstood. Yet, each has a clear orientation. And distinctions may be drawn in terms of their areas of impact on the payoff to an enterprise and their relevance to a manager. So an RS provides standardized reports based on well-known policies, procedures, and rules. And a DSS provides information to help management with new , unstructured decision making.A pyramid may be used to illustrate the dimensions of an information system(Fig.10.2).The vertical dimension represents the levels of management (first-line, middle, and top management) , and the horizontal dimension represents the main functional areas of a business firm (for example, marketing, production, and finace).The depth dimension indicates the major management information systems that provide support for managerial activities: the structured and required reporting systems(RS) and decisionmaking system(DSS) . Thesedimensions rest on a base of transactions processing(TP).Fig.10.2 The Dimension of a Management Information SystemAs the figure illustrates, RS and DSS (drawing on the TP system ) are utilized at all managerial levels and acress all function areas . There, it is te management information system(of TP ,RS ,and DSS ) that integrates both the level of management and functional areas .To further demonstrate how the subsystems fit together, the definition of MIS is recreated in the following table , with the components of MIS related to the defintional frame work.Table10.1 Definition of Management Information System (MIS).An integrated user/machine system .Computer, models.For providing information .System output.To support decision making .MIS.DSS.OR/MS. In an enterprise .Frameworkforthe information The system utilizes.Computer hardware and software .Computer system.Manual procedures .Books,manuals,people.Models for analysis .Operations research.A database .Computer ,people Developing a compensation plan to pay executive, managerial, and professional employees is similar in many respects to developing a play for and employees. The basic aims of the plan are the same in that the goal is to attract good employees and maintain their commitment. Furthermore, the basic methods of job evaluation , classifying jobs, ranking them , or assigning points to them ,for instance, are about as applicable to managerial and professional jobs as to production and clerical ones.1)Yet for managerial and professional jobs , job evaluation provides only a partial answer to the question of how to pay these employees, Such jobs tend to emphasize nonquantifiable factor like judgment and problem solving more than do production and clerical jobs . There is also a tendency to pay manager and professionals based on abilitybased on their performance or on what they can do –rather than on the basis of static job demands like working conditions. Developing compensation plans for managers and professionals, therefore, tendsto be relatively complex,2) and evaluation, while still important, usually plays a secondary issues, like bonuses, incentives, and benefits.Compensation Managers There are five elements in a manager’s compensation package: salary, benefits, short-term incentive, long-term incentives, and perquisites.The amount of salary managers are paid usually depends on the value of the person’s work to organization and how well the person is discharging his or her responsibilities.3)AS with other jobs , the value of the person’s work is usually determined through job analysis and salary surveys and salary surveys and the resulting fine tuning of salary levels.Salary is the cornerstone of executive compensation : It is on this element that the others are layered, with benefits, incentives , and perquisites normally awarded in some proportion to the manager’s base pay .4) There is considerable disagreement regarding what determines executive pay and, therefore , whether top executives are worth what are paid . At the lower-management levels(like first-line supervisor),there is no debate ; supervisors’ pay grades are usually set so that their median salaries are 10% to 25% above those of the highest-paid workers supervised. And many employers even pay supervisors for scheduled overtime, although the Fair Labor Standards Act does not require them to do so.It is at the top-management levels that questions regarding pay abound . Thetraditional wisdom is that a top manager’s salary is closely tied to the size of the firm . Yet two experts who tested this idea for the 148 highest-paid executives in the United States concluded that the level of executive responsibility (as measured by total assets, total sales,total number of shares in the company, total value of the shares, and total corporate profits) is not an important variable in determing executive compensation . Instead , say these experts , an executive’s pay is mostly determined by the industry in which he or she works, and the corporate power structure ,since executives who also serve on their firms’ boards of directors can heavily influence how they get paid.Yet there is conflicting evidence. In one study , for instance , the researcher found that a statistical analysis of the total cash compensation of the chief executive officers of 129 companies showed that they were paid for both responsibility and performance. This researcher fond that four compensable factors-company size , profitability, number of employees, and experience-accounted for 83% of the differences in pay .Therefore, it appears that there are rational, acceptable , and abiding principles that govern the total cash compensation of top executives in manufacturing firms.In any case, shareholder activism is combining with congressional reform and other changes to tighten up the restrictions on what firms pay their top executives . For example, the Securities and Exchange Commission voted in 1992 to approve final rules rules regarding executive compensationcommunications.The chief executive officer’s pay is always to be disclosed as well as other officers’pay if their compensation( salary and bonus) exceeds $100,000.5 And for bankers,the Federal Deposit Insurance Act of 1991 contains a prohibition on excessive compensation. One result is that boards of directors must act responsibly in reviewing and setting executive pay . That , says one expert, includes determining the key performance requirements of the executive’s job; assessing the appropriateness of the firm’s current compensation practices ; conducting a pay-for-performance survey; and testing shareholder acceptance of the board’s pay proposals.The general trend today is to reduce the acceptance of base salary and boost the importance of short-and long-term executive incentives. The main issue here is identifying the appropriate performance measures for each type of incentive and then determining how to link these to pay . Typical short-term measures of shareholder value include revenue growth and operating profit margin. Long-term shareholder value measures include rate of return above some predetermined base.Compensating professional employees Compensating nonsupervisory professional employees like engineers and scientists presents unique problems. 6) Analytical jobs put a heavy premium on creativity and problem solving, compensable factors not easily compared or measured. Furthermore, the professional’s economic impact on the firm is often related only indirectly to theperson’s actual efforts; for example,the success of an engineer’s invention depends on many factors, like how well it is produced and marketed.The job evaluation methods we explained previously can be used for evaluating professional jobs. The compensable factors here tend to focus on problem solving , creativity, job scope, and technical knowledge and expertise. Both the point method and factor comparison methods have been used , although the job classification method seems most popular . Here a series of grade descriptions are written, and each position is slotted into the grade having the most appropriate definition.Yet，in praction, traditional methods of job evaluation are rarely used for professional jobs since “it is simply not possible to identify factors and degrees of factors which meaningfully differentiate among the values of professional work ”. “Knowledge and the skill of applying it ,”as one expert notes , “are extremely difficult to quantify and measure.”As a result , most employers use a market-pricing approach in evaluating professional jobs . They price professional jobs in the marketplace to the best of their ability to establish the values for benchmark jobs . These benchmark jobs and the employer’s other professional jobs are then slotted into a salary structure. Specifically, each professional discipline ( like mechanical engineering or electrical engineering ) usually ends up having four to six grade levels , each of which requires a fairly broad salary range . This approach helps ensure that theemplpyer remains competitive when bidding for professionals whose attainments vary widely and whose potential employers are literally found worldwide.Manager must assume certain roles in order to accomplish the different objectives for which they are responsible. In addition , all managers must possess specific managerial skills if they are to adequately perform the function . Managerial RolesHenry Mintzberg’s studies of executive behavior led him to conclude that managers are required to assume a variety of roles . A role is a set of expected behaviors for a specif ic position. 1) Mintzberg’s roles can be grouped into three main categories: interpersonal , informational , and decisional . Mintzberg’s believed that all three roles are common to all levels of management. They provide an interesting perspective of the functions of management.2) Interperesonal roles result form the fact that managers are called upon to interact with numerous groups and individuals. The three interpersonal roles are figurehead, leader , and liaison . The figurehead role refers to ceremonial duties such as throwing out the first pitch for company-sponsored Little League game . The leadership role refers to the manager’s work in motivating subordinates to meet the unit’s objectives. The liaison role comes form the manager’s responsibility to interact with various groups both within and outside the organization .Informational roles exist because managers are important conduits ofinformation in the organization . Managers spend a great deal of their time collecting and disseminating information. The three informational roles are information nerve center, disseminator, and spokesperson . The nerve center role means that the manager is the major information receiver within the work unit . The disseminating role refers to the task of informing subordinates of information that is implemented to them and necessary for their job performance..3) The spokesperson role is implemented when the manager communicates with parties outside the organization ; a speech at the local Lions Club would be an example.Decisional roles refer to management’s decision-making process. The four managerial roles in this category are entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator . A manager assumes an entrepreneurial role when he or she initiates projects to improve the department or work unit . When problems such as a missed delivery to a key customer arise , the manager must adopt a disturbance handling role . 4) The decision on how to allocate the unit’s money , time, materials, and other resource s is referred to as the manager’s resource allocator role. Finally , the negotiator role refers to situations where the manager must represent the unit’s interests with others , such as suppliers , customers, and government .The Skill Needed for Effective Management：What skills do managers need to possess? 5) Noted management authority Rober L.Katz has suggested threespecific skills that are required in all typed of managerial situations .Katz’s managerial skills relate to technical . interpersonal, and cobceptual factors in the manager’s job.Technical skills refer to the ability to use various tools and methods to accomplish specific managerial aspects of a work task. A good illustration of the importance of technical skill is the factory supervisor who must be familiar with how machinery works in order to correct problems that may arise on the plant floor.Interpersonal skills refer to the ability to lead , motivate , and communicate with people to accomplish certain objectives. Interpersonal skills are also important during interactions with supervisors and people outside the work unit such as vendors , customers,and the public. These skills are important at all levels in the organization. A current adaptation of this skill is the cultural awareness nec essary to function in today’s workplace, with its ethnically diversified labor force.Copceptual skills refer to the ability understand and cording the full range of organizational objective and actives .This ability to analyze the entire organization is particularly important to top management. It is a necessary ingredient in the development of strategic plan for the organization.管理信息系统我们对管理信息系统提出以下定义，即一种为企业决策提供信息的集成用户/计算机系统。