Chapter 41.SyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Syntax is a brand of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:a.Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of oneaspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontalrelation or chain relationb.Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets ofword substitutable for each other grammatically insentences with the same structure. It refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set. Itcalled associative relations, vertical relations, choicerelations.c.Relation of co-occurrence2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called immediate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis.3.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent.Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English andother languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction.(and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguisticform and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.a.Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.It includes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics include word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentencestructure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c.Object include direct object and indirect object6.Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow senseand refers to the defining properties of these general units.a.Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis ofword classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b.Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine,neuter.c.Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify thesyntactic relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived.Agreement (concord)7.Phrase is a single element of structure containing more thanone word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that express a compete thought.8.Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embeddingone relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic.Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution)9.Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfillthe same or similar functions in a particular language such asa sentence, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.Word-level categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and minor lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary,conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, complement10.P hrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.NP----(Det) N (PP)…VP---(Qual) V (NP)…AP---(Deg) A (PP)…PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement)The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11.P hrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise themeaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.The XP rules (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。