Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludesresearch into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability touse Ian guage.2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion.3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in aparticular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization ofcog nitive fun cti on.5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for theperception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on.8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is callednon-flue nt aphasia.9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results ina type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte ncauses the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems tohave lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un ableto recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so undrules.13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words isreversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips.14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ngof letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word.15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used wordstha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.16. lexical decision: ___ an experime nt that let participa nts judge whether a stri ng of letteris a word or not at a certa in time.17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of lettersis a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. prim ing effect: Since the men tal represe ntati on is activated through the prime, whe nthe target is prese nted, resp onse time is shorter that it otherwise would have bee n. Thisis called the prim ing effect. (06F)19. bottom-up process ing: an approach that makes use prin cipally of in formati on which isalready prese nt in the data.20. top-dow n process ing: an approach that makes use of previous kno wledge and experie neeof the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received.21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumptio n was in correct, forcing thecomprehe nder to backtrack and rein terpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue: ____ mistakes in speech which provide psycholi nguistic evide nee for theway we formulate words and phrases.Chapter 11 : Second Lan guage Acquisiti on1. second Ianguage acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquiresa sec ond Ian guage subseque nt to his n ative Ian guage.2. target Ian guage: The Ian guage to be acquired by the sec ond Ian guage lear ner.3. second Ianguage: A second Ianguage is a Ianguage which is not a native Ianguage in a country but which is widely used as a medium of com mun icatio n and which is usually used alon gsideano ther Ian guage or Ian guages.4. foreign lang uage: A foreig n Ian guage is a Ian guage which is taught as a school subjectbut which is not used as a medium of in struct ion in schools nor as a Ian guage of com muni cati on withi n a coun try.5. in terla nguage: A type of Ian guage produced by sec ond and foreig n Ian guage lear ners, whoare in the process of learning a Ianguage, and this type of Ianguage usually contains wrong expressi ons.6. fossilization: In second or foreign Ianguage learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which in correct lin guistic features become a perma nent part of the way a pers onspeaks or writes a Ian guage.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing Ianguages for instructional purposes wherebya native Ianguage and target Ianguage are compared with a view to establishing points ofdiffere nee likely to cause difficulties for lear ners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second Ianguage acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second Ianguages, the learner willacquire sec ond Ian guage structure with ease, where there are differe nces, the lear ner will have difficulty.9. positive tran sfer: It refers to the tran sfer that occur whe n both the n ative Ian guageand the target Ianguage have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)10. negative transfer: ___ the mistaken transfer of features of one ' s native Ianguage into asec ond Ian guage.11. error analysis: ___ the study and an alysis of errors made by sec ond and foreig n Ian guagelearners in order to identify causes of errors or commondifficulties in Ianguage learning.12. i nterli ngual error: errors, which mai nly result from cross-li nguistic in terfere nee atdiffere nt levels such as phono logical, lexical, grammatical etc.13. in trali ngual error: ____ Errors, which mai nly result from faulty or partial lear ning of thetarget Ian guage, in depe ndent of the n ative Ian guage. The typical examples areoverge neralizati on and cross-associati on.14. overgeneralization: ___ The use of previously available strategies in new situati ons, inwhich they are un acceptable.15. cross-association: ____ some words are similar in meaning as well as spelli ng andpronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the product ion of in correct forms in speech or writi ng by a non-n ative speakerof a sec ond Ian guage, due to his in complete kno wledge of the rules of that target Ian guage.17. mistake: mistakes, defi ned as either inten ti on ally or uninten ti on ally devia nt forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performa nce.18. in put: Ian guage which a lear ner hears or receives and from which he or she can lear n.19. in take: the in put which is actually helpful for the lear ner.20. In put Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashe n , which states that in sec ond Ian guage learnin g, it ' s n ecessary for the lear ner to un dersta nd in put Ian guage which containslinguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner ' s present linguistic competence.Eventually the ability to produce Ianguage is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisiti on: Acquisiti on is a process similar to the way childre n acquire their firstIanguage. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their lear ning but they are using Ian guage to com muni cate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second Ianguage knowledge by learning therules and talk ing about the rules.23. comprehe nsible in put: In put Ian guage which contains lin guistic items that are slightlybey ond the lear ner ' s prese nt lin guistic compete nee. (06F)24. Ianguage aptitude: the natural ability to learn a Ianguage, not including intelligenee, motivati on, in terest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner ' s attitudes and affective state orlearning drive.26. in strume ntal motivation: ____ t he motivati on that people lear n a foreig n Ian guage forin strume ntal goals such as pass ing exams, or furtheri ng a career etc. (06C)27. in tegrative motivation: _____ t he drive that people lear n a foreig n Ian guage because of thewish to ide ntify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivati on: the drive that lear ners lear n a sec ond Ian guage for exter nal purposes. (06F)29. intrin sic motivation: ____ the drive that lear ners lear n the sec ond Ian guage for enjoyme ntor pleasure from lear ning.30. learning strategies: _____ learning strategies are learners ' conscious goal -oriented and problem-solvi ng based efforts to achieve lear ning efficie ncy.31. cog nitive strategies: ____ strategies in volved in an alyz ing, syn thesis, and intern aliz ingwhat has bee n learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies: the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one' s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: ______ the strategies deali ng with the ways lear ners in teract orcom muni cate with other speakers, n ative or non-n ative.Chapter 10: Lan guage Acquisiti on1. language acquisition: ____ It refers to the child ' s acquisition of his mother tongue, . how the child comes to un dersta nd and speak the Ian guage of his com mun ity.2. Ian guage acquisiti on device (LAD): _____ A hypothetical inn ate mecha nism every no rmal huma nchild is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire Ian guage. (03)3. Uni versal Grammar: A theory which claims to acco unt for the grammatical compete nee ofevery adult no matter what la nguage he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slowrate of speed, high pitch, rich inton ati on, shorter and simpler sentence structures 又叫child directed speech , caretaker talk.(05)5. Critical Period Hypothesis: _____ The hypothesis that the time spa n betwee n early childhoodand puberty is the critical period for Ianguage acquisition, during which children can acquire Ian guage without formal in structi on successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)6. un der-exte nsion: Use a word with less tha n its usual range of deno tati on.7. over-exte nsion: Exte nsion of the meaning of a word bey ond its usual doma in ofapplicatio n by young childre n.8. telegraphic speech: Children ' s early multiword speech that contains content words andlacks function words and in flect ional morphemes.9. content word: Words referri ng to thin gs, quality, state or acti on, which have lexicalmeaning used alone.10. fun ctio n word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relati on ships in and betwee n senten ces.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some con texts of speech for reas ons ofreligi on, polite ness etc. (07C)12. atypical developme nt: Some acquisiti on of Ian guage may be delayed but follow the samerules of Ian guage developme nt due to trauma or injury.Chapter 9: Lan guage And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a pers on, in clud ing the patter ns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and Ianguage that characterizes the life of humancom munity.2. discourse commu nity : It refers to the com mon ways that members of some social groupuse Ian guage to meet their n eeds.3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the Ianguage, culture and system of valuesof a group happen through interaction with another group with a different Ianguage, culture and a system of values.4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of Ianguage and thought is now known asSapir-Whorf Hypothesis.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined whollyor partly by the structure of their native Ianguage——又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)6. lin guistic determinism: ____ It refers to the idea that the Ian guage we use, to some exte nt,determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)7. deno tative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dict ion ary.8. conno tative meaning: The associati on of a word, apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word in voked to people.10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference tocerta in acts or subjects, . powder room for toilet.12. cultural overlap: ____ The situati on betwee n two societies due to some similarities in then atural en viro nment and psychology of huma n being513. cultural diffusion: _____ Through com muni cati on, some eleme nts of culture A en ter culture Band become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusi on. (05/03)14. cultural imperialism: ____ The situati on of in creas ing cultural diffusi on all over theworld.(06C)15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgati on of global ideologies through the world-wide expa nsion of one Ian guage. (06C)16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their Ianguage, some countrieshave adopted special language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.17. in tercultural communication: _____ It is com muni catio n betwee n people whose culturalpercepti ons and symbols are dist inct eno ugh to alter the com muni cati on event.18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official Ianguage(s), ways of spreading the use of a Ianguage, spelling reforms, the additionof new words to the Ian guage, and other Ian guage problems.Chapter 8: Lan guage And Society1. sociolinguistics: ____ T he subfield of linguistics that study Ianguage variation and Ianguage use in social con texts.2. speech com mun ity: A group of people who form a com munity and share at least one speechvariety as well as similar lin guistic no rms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any disti nguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers.4. regi onal dialect: ____ A variety of Ian guage used by people livi ng in the same geographicalregi on.5. sociolect: A variety of Ianguage used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of Ianguage which is selected as appropriate to the type ofsituatio n.7. idiolect : A pers on ' s dial ect of an in dividual speaker that comb ines eleme nts, regard ing region al, social, gen der and age variati ons. (04)8. ling uistic reportoire : The totality of lin guistic varieties possessed by an in dividualcon stitutes his lin guistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed thatthree social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourseand mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the com muni cative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relati on ship in the situatio n in questio n: who the participa nts in the com muni cati on groups are and in what relati on ship they sta nd to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the mea ns of com muni cati on and it is concerned with howcom munication is carried out.13. sta ndard dialect: ___ A superposed variety of Ian guage of a com munity or n ati on, usuallybased on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the Ianguage.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects therelati on ship and con versati ons. Accord ing to Marti n Joos, there are five stages of formality,n amely, in timate, casual, con sultative, formal and froze n.15. Pidgi n: A ble nding of several Ian guage, develop ing as a con tact Ian guage of people, who speak differe nt Ian guages, try to com muni cati on with one ano ther on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin Ianguage which has become the native Ianguage of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having adiffere nt role to play, and Ian guage switch ing occurs whe n the situati on cha nges.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of Ianguageco-exist in a speech com muni ty, each hav ing a defi nite role to play.19. Lin gua Franca : A variety of Ian guage that serves as a medium of com muni cati on amonggroups of people, who speak differe nt n ative Ian guages or dialects20. code-switch ing: the moveme nt back and forth betwee n two Ian guages or dialects withinthe same sentence or discourse. (04)1. historical li nguistics: _______ A subfield of lin guistics that study Ian guage cha nge.2. coin age: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)3. ble nding: A ble nd is a word formed by combi ning parts of other words.4. clipp ing: Clipp ing refers to the abbreviati on of Ion ger words or phrases.5. borrow ing: When differe nt culture come into con tact, words are ofte n borrowed from oneIan guage to ano ther. It is also called load words.6. back formati on: New words may be coined from already exist ing words by subtract ing anaffix mistake nly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formatio n.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acrony ms: Acronyms are words derived from the in itials of several words.9. protola nguage: The orig inal form of a Ian guage family, which has ceased to exist.10. Lang uage family: A group of historically related Ian guages that have developed from acom mon an cestral la nguage.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.72. con text: The gen eral kno wledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. uttera nee meaning: The meaning that a speaker con veys by using a particular uttera neein a particular con text. (03)5. uttera nee: expressi on produced in a particular con text with a particular inten ti on.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by Joh n Austi n and deepe ned by Searle, whichbelieves that we are perform ing acti ons whe n we are speak ing. (05)7. con statives: Con statives are stateme nts that either state or describe, and are thusverifiable. (06F)8. performatives: Performatives are sentences that don' t state a fact or describe a state,and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: __ The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syn tax, lexic on andphono logy.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker' s intention and performed in saying someth ing. (06F)11. perlocuti onary act: ___ The act result ing from say ing somethi ng and the con seque nee or thecha nge brought about by the uttera nee.12. represe ntatives: Stati ng or describ ing, say ing what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Tryi ng to get the hearer to do somethi ng.14. commisives: Committi ng the speaker himself to some future course of actio n.15. expressives: Express ing feeli ngs or attitude towards an exist ing state.16. declarati on: Bring about immediate cha nges by say ing someth ing.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willingto cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. con versatio nal implicature: ____ The use of con versati onal maxims to imply meaning duri ngcon versati on.19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to expressthe same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, con sultative, cold, and froze n. (06F)Chapter 5: Sema ntics1. sema ntics: Sema ntics can be simply defi ned as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle : It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaningof a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world,but through the mediatio n of con cept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the in here nt meaning of the lin guistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Referenee means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldof experie nee.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synony ms.6. dialectal synony ms: synonyms that are used in differe nt regi onal dialects.7. stylistic synony ms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, ., in the words theygo together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same form, ., differe nt words are ide ntical in sound or spelli ng, or in both. (04)11. homopho nes: When two words are ide ntical in sound, they are homoph on es.12. homographs: When two words are ide ntical in spelli ng, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are ide ntical in both sound and spelli ng, they are complete homony ms.14. hyp onymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relati on betwee n a more gen eral, more in clusiveword and a more specific word.15. superord in ate: The word which is more gen eral in meaning is called the superord in ate.16. co-hyp ony ms: Hyponyms of the same superord in ate are co-hyp ony ms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for opposite ness of meaning.18. gradable antony ms: Somea ntonyms are gradable because there are ofte n in termediate forms between the two members of a pair. , antonyms old and young, between them there existmiddle-aged, mature, elderly.19. compleme ntary antony ms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pairimplies the asserti on of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relati onal opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relati on ship betwee n the two items are called relati onal opposites. For example, husba nd---wife, father---s on,buy---sell, let---re nt, above---below.21. en tailme nt: the relati on ship betwee n two sentences where the truth of one is in ferredfrom the truth of the other. . Cindy killed the dog en tails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage alreadyknows. . Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea .923. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.25. predicati on: In the framework of predicati on an alysis, the basic un its is calledpredicatio n, which is the abstracti on of the meaning of a sentence.26. predicate: A predicate is someth ing said about an argume nt or it states the logicalrelati on linking the argume nts in a sentence.27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical withthe nominal eleme nt(s) in a senten ce.28. selecti onal restrictio n: Whether a sentence is sema ntically meanin gful is gover ned bythe rules called select ional restrict ion s, . con stra ints on what lexical items can go withwhat others.29. sema ntic features: The smallest un its of meaning in a word, which may be described asa comb in ati on of sema ntic comp onen ts. For example, woman has the sema ntic features [+huma n] [-male] [+adult]. (04)30. preseque nee: The specific tur n that has the function of prefiguri ng the coming acti on.(05)Chapter 4: Sy ntax1. syn tax: A branch of lin guistics that studies how words are comb ined to form sentencesand the rules that gover n the formati on of senten ces.2. category: It refers to a group of lin guistic items which fulfill the same or similarfun cti ons in a particular Ian guage such as a senten ce, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syn tactic categories: ____ W ords can be grouped together into a relatively small nu mber ofclasses, called syn tactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, in cludi ng N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase,the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed,n amely, NP, VP, PP, AP.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to fun ctio n as specifiers.10. compleme nt: The words on the right side of the heads are compleme nts.11. phrase structure rule: _____ T he special type of grammatical mecha nism that regulates thearran geme nt of eleme nts that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of thehead while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarizedas an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. theory: A theoretical con cept i n tran sformatio nal grammar which restricts the formof con text-free phrases structure rules.14. coord in atio n: Some structures are formed by joining two or more eleme nts of the sametype with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phe nomenon is known ascoord in ati on.15. subcategorization: The information about a word ' s complement is included in the headand termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. compleme nt phrase: the eleme nts, in cludi ng a compleme ntizer and a compleme nt clause is called a compleme nt phrase.19. matrix clause: the con trusct ion in which the compleme nt phrase is embedded is calledmatrix clause.20. modifier: the eleme nt, which specifies opti on ally expressible properties of heads iscalled modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position toano ther.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Inflpositi on to a positi on to the left of the subject, is called in vers ion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt In fl, i nterrogative do is in serted in to an empty Infl posit on to make tran sformatio n work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessarysyn tactic moveme nt, ., tran sformatio n, to the deep structure. (05)26. Wh questi on : In En glish, the kind of questi ons beg inning with a wh- word are calledwh questi on.27. Wh movement : The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a positi on at the beg inning of the sentence. This tran sformati on is called wh moveme nt.。