Unit 1Safety Management Systems安全管理体系1.Accident Causation Models1.事故致因理论The most important aim of safety management is to maintain and promote workers' health and safety at work. Understanding why and how accidents and other unwanted events develop is important when preventive activities are planned. Accident theories aim to clarify the accident phenomena，and to explain the mechanisms that lead to accidents. All modem theories are based on accident causation models which try to explain the sequence of events that finally produce the loss. In ancient times, accidents were seen as an act of God and very little could be done to prevent them. In the beginning of the 20th century，it was believed that the poor physical conditions are the root causes of accidents. Safety practitioners concentrated on improving machine guarding, housekeeping and inspections. In most cases an accident is the result of two things ：The human act, and the condition of the physical or social environment.安全管理系统最重要的目的是维护和促进工人们在工作时的健康和安全。
在制定预防性计划时，了解为什么、怎样做和其他意外事故的发展是十分重要的。
事故致因理论旨在阐明事故现象，和解释事故的机理。
所有现代理论都是基于试图解释事件发生、发展过程和最终引起损失的事故致因理论。
在古老的时期，事故被看做是上帝的行为并且几乎没有预防的方法去阻止他们。
在20世纪开始的时候，人们开始相信差的物理条件是事故发生的根源。
安全从业人员集中注意力在提高机器监护、维护和清理上。
在大多数情况下，一件事故的发生主要有两个原因：人类的行为和物理或者社会环境。
Petersen extended the causation theory from the individual acts and local conditions to the management system. He concluded that unsafe acts, unsafe conditions，and accidents are all symptoms of something wrong in the organizational management system. Furthermore, he stated that it is the top management who is responsible for building up such a system that can effectively control the hazards associated to the organization’s operation. The errors done by a single person can be intentional or unintentional. Rasmussen and Jensen have presented a three-level skill-rule-knowledge model for describing the origins of the different types of human errors. Nowadays，this model is one of the standard methods in the examination of human errors at work.彼得森根据管理体系中个人的行为结合当地的环境扩充了事故致因理论。
他的结论是像不安全行为、不安全情况是一些错误的组织管理系统导致事故的征兆。
另外，他指出，高层管理人员负责建立一个能够有效控制危险源有关组织。
一个人出现的错误可能是有意的或者是无意的。
拉斯姆森和杰森已经提出了三个层次的技能规则知识模型来描述不同种类的人错误的起源。
如今，这种模式已经成为在工作中检验人的错误的标准之一。
Accident-proneness models suggest that some people are more likely to suffer anaccident than others. The first model was created in 1919，based on statistical examinations in a mumilions factory. This model dominated the safety thinking and research for almost 50 years, and it is still used in some organizations. As a result of this thinking, accident was blamed solelyon employees rather than the work process or poor management practices. Since investigations to discover the underlying causal factors were felt unnecessary and/or too costly, a little attention was paid to how accidents actually happened. Employ ees’ attitudes towards risks and risk taking have been studied, e. g. by Sulzer-Azaroff. According to her, employees often behave unsafely, even when they are fully aware of the risks involved. Many research results also show that the traditional promotion methods like campaigns, posters and safety slogans have seldom increased the use of safe work practices. When backed up by other activities such as training, these measures have been somewhat more effective. Experiences on some successful methods to change employee behavior and attitudes have been reported. One well-known method is a small-group process used for improving housekeeping in industrial workplaces. A comprehensive model of accident causation has been presented by Reason who introduced the concept of organizational error. He stated that corporate culture is the starting-point of the accident sequence. Local conditions and human behavior are only contributing factors in the build-up of the undesired event. The latent organizational failures lead t o accidents and incidents when penetrating system’s defenses and barriers. Gmoeneweg has developed Reason’s model by classifying the typical latent error types. His TRIPOD mode! calls the different errors as General Failure Types ( CFTs). The concept of organizational error is in conjunction with the fact that some organizations behave more safely than others. It is often said that these organizations have good safety culture. After the Chernobyl accident，this term became well-known also to the public.事故的倾向性模型表示有些人比其他人更容易引起事故。
第一种模型建立在1919年来源于军工厂的统计检查。
这种模式占据了人们在安全思考和研究的时间将近50年，并且仍然被一些组织使用，这种思维所造成的结果是，发生事故的责任仅仅在于员工而不是工作过程和较差的管理实践。