Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences→semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→the context of language useSociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat②the oral cavity→the mouth③the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cordsPhonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Because from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.问题：What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学1 定义和知识点：①the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure②the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.③it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.④it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaningand syntactic function.⑤four facets:Sounds (phonology)Constructions (syntax)Meanings (semantics)Forms of words2 词性分类①open class words:名、动、形、副are the content words of a language②closed class words: 连、介、冠、代are small and stablesince few new words are added3 词素有关❶ Morpheme: 词素构成单词的最小意义单位，包括声音和意义，abstract units(任意性)❷ Morph: 形素the sound of a morpheme 声音❸ Allomorphs: 语素变体The variant forms of a morpheme4 分类morphemes①Free morpheme(自由词素): A morpheme which can be a word by itself②bound morpheme(粘着词素)：A morpheme that must be attached to another one③lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes(派生词素,包括前后缀): They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes④inflectional morphemes(屈折词素)：词类不发生变化5 单词定义：WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules.A word is a lexeme(词位). A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 单词结构：StructureRoot: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added.Base: 词基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don’t belong to a lexical category.7 单词合成：Word formation❶there is a general rule for all the movement rules. This general rule is referred to as Moveα,where “alpha” is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.❷only certain categories are targeted by movement rules, and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.①inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position.②no element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1语义学定义：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2The naming theory(ancient Greek scholar Plato)A→BThe words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.Limitations:This theory seems applicable to nouns only.Abstract notions can not be defined by this theory.3The conceptualist view(概念论)There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.Semantic triangle/triangle of significance (Ogden and Richards) 1923年提出The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.5 Behaviorism 行为主义论（American Bloomfield）This theory is linked with psychological interest.刺激反应理论：Jill JackS------------------r………..s-------------------R6 lexical meaningSense and referenceSense 定义:It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. (Dictionary compilers are interested in)每个单词都有它的意义（sense）Reference 定义：It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.不是所有单词都有语义（reference）Major sense relations:❶synonymy 同义关系synonyms①dialectal synonyms 方言同义词（British English and American English）Girl------lass/lassie (Scottish dialect)Liquor-------whiskey (Irish dialect)B AAutumn fallLift elevatorLuggage baggageLorry truckPetrol gasolineFlat apartmentWindscreen windshieldTorch flashlight②stylistic synonymsWords having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality E.g. old man/daddy/dad/father/male parentStart/begin/commenceKid/child/offspringKick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaningCollaborator / accomplice④collocational synonyms 短语同义词Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…forRotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milk⑤semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词Amaze/astoundDrift/float❷polysemy 一词多义❸homonymy 同音异义①identical in sound(homophones): Rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leek②identical in spelling(homographs): Bow/bow tear/tear lead/lead③identical in both sound and spelling(complete homonyms): Fast/fast scale/scale❹hyponymy 下义关系①It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.②superordinate 上坐标词③hyponyms 下义词④co-hyponyms 共同下义词E.g. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morning gloryAnimal: dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bearFurniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/settee❺antonymy 反义关系①gradable antonyms 等级反义词②complementary antonyms 互补反义词（不能共存，非此即彼）③relational opposites 反向反义关系（相反的两个极端但可共存）7 sense relations between sentences①X is synonymous with Y.(X真，Y真；X假，Y假)②X is inconsistent with Y.(X 真，Y假；X假，Y真)③X entails Y.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y可真可假)④X presupposes Y.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y仍为真)⑤X is a contradiction. (X永远假)⑥X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句8 analysis of meaning❶componential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning(成分分析)Semantic features语义特征：The word “man” comprises the features of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE❷predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning(述谓结构分析)The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of allits constituent words.There are two aspects to sentence meaningGrammatical meaning: grammatical well-formednessThe grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Semantic meaning:Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制).(constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比Predication analysis:proposed by the British linguist G. Leech.Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s)(变元) and predicate(谓词)E.g. TOM(SMOKE)KID, APPLE(LIKE)(BE HOT)(SNOW)Argument(s)(变元)定义：It is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element inBased on the conventional meaning of certain words in the language②non-conventional implicature（非规约含义）主要是particularized conversational implicature(特定语境下的会话含义）In Grice’s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate.Grice’s original wording:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maximsThe maxim of quantity数量原则（不多不少）The maxim of quality质量准则The maxim of relation关系原则The maxim of manner 方式准则Three ways of violating the four maxim:The speaker wants to mislead the hearer.The speaker does not possess the adequate amount of information he is expected to provide.The speaker simply does not want to go on with the conversation.。