实用标准文案Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics: 语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学 The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language精彩文档．实用标准文案11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar isprescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔 ---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]: the basic principle of theIPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.精彩文档．实用标准文案Aspirated and unaspiratedphonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language 1).form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素 is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communicationare all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don't, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位 is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones 音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another by copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a soundin a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)精彩文档．实用标准文案the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That's not the book he wants.Chapter 3: MorphologyMorphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of 1).words and the rules by which words are formedMorpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2).Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.3).Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to another 4).one.Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morpheme5).Chapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word's categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.The naming theory(命名论)）1Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.精彩文档．实用标准文案3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contextsare recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word's co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound,they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling,they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义): When two words are identical inboth sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.精彩文档．实用标准文案e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）more a sense to the relation between Hyponymy: Hyponymy refersgeneral, more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily（反义关系）Antonymy the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning----there are often intermediate ）Gradable antonyms（等级反义词1)hot-cold, old-young, pair, e.g. forms between the two members of atall-short …----the denial of one member Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）2)alive-dead, other, e.g. the pair implies assertion of the of themale-female …----exhibits the reversal of the （关系反义词）3) Relational oppositesfather-son, husband-wife, the two items, e.g. relationship between give-receive, employer-employee, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, above-below …2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning 2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersritish G. Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (BLeech).Chapter 6: Pragmaticsusea language speakers the 学study of how of 用1).Pragmatics:语sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning精彩文档．实用标准文案of area is confined to the not If it is considered, the study being is is considered, the study traditional semantics; if itcarried out in the area of pragmatics.new model of speech actss⑴Austin'and utterance is concrete, meaning Utterance meaning: the of anis sentence meaning; it context-dependent. Utterance is based on realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.converse to Grice.His idea is that Cooperative Principle(CD):Paulto willing first of all be other, with each the participants must cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.Principle of conversation (Paul Grice) 3）（数量准则）The maximof quantityMake your contribution as informative as required (for the current （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程purpose of the exchange).度。