汉语语言文化基础第一讲课程说明本课程涉及汉语的音韵、汉字研究、语法、修辞以及汉语文化。
结合英语语言学及英语学教学研究生的专业特点，运用普通语言学、语言类型学、对比语言学、认知语言学等理论，对汉语上述有关方面进行探讨，以期达到丰富知识、夯实理论基础、有利于将来的语言或文学研究、翻译研究与实践、以及英语教学和对外汉语教学。
建议课本叶蜚声，徐通锵著，王洪君，李娟修订，2011，《语言学纲要》北京大学出版社。
陈望道，2001，《修辞学发凡》，上海教育出版社。
陈望道，1997，《文法简论》，上海教育出版社。
王力，2000，中国现代语法，商务印书馆。
吕叔湘，文法要略，商务印书馆。
汉语的音韵（之一）语音的重要性语言首先是声音的符号系统。
Oral Speech is primary, whether ontogenically or phylogenically.语音是思想的符号，文字是语音的符号。
这意味着：不懂得语音的规律，就无法有效地表达思想，即说不准（如To be or not to be, that is the question.）；也无法发现语言中的思想，即听不准；不懂语音规律，也无法生动地写作。
而语音与文字的关系决定这样一个事实：Writing is the visualization of oral speech; and reading is the revival of the vocal speech caught in the lines.In the course of each transformation, loss and distortion is invariably very possible. So through awareness and great caution is needed.歌德曾说，不懂外语的人也很难真懂母语。
这句话，反过来更是真理。
语音学与音系学语音与自然界的声音既相同又不相同。
相同处：都是空气粒子正东而发声；不同处：自然界的声音是连续的，不可分割；语音则是离散的，其基本单位可以按一定规则组合成大小不等的更高级的单位。
语音的自然属性还可以再细分为三个方面：发音、传递、感知，分别对应语音的三个分支：发音语音学、声学语音学、和听觉语音学。
音系学音系学研究语音的社会属性及其组合规则。
具体研究语音在某一语言系统内部的功能与结合原则。
所谓Phonology is the grammar of speech sounds.音位：phoneme一种语言或方言里用来区分意义的最小语音单位。
汉语普通话中有三种不同的音位元音、辅音和声调。
各种语言都各有一套因为系统。
Phonetics is universal; phonology is language specific.母音（元音）；子音（辅音）。
Consonant can be regarded as modifications of vowels.音系：语音系统或音位系统。
某方言或语言的全部音位及其归类和相互的组合关系。
Tone: pitch variations.Intonation: pitch stress and sound length combined together and attached to sentence or clause are called intonation.对于语言学或语音研究初学者来说，发音原理最重要。
语音、乃至语言的学习具有很大的模仿性，但只有知道了发音原理，才能更准去的模仿。
说一种语言不只是口头的功夫，实际是一种“口耳之学”。
汉语与英语的语音语音方面以北京话的语音为标准。
A comparison between the vowels and consonants of Chinese and English languagesThe vowel system of English language and that of the Chinese language英语的元音系统比较简单，有12个单元音和8个双元音。
The vowel system of Chinese language汉语元音系统比较复杂，单韵母10个，复韵母13个，鼻韵母15个，共38个。
与英语相比，汉语的元音系统复杂一些，一方面是音类多。
另一方面是原因结构复杂，有单有双，还有三合元音以及后面带有鼻音的元音。
另一差异之处在于：汉语的三合元音中间元音读得最响亮，滑移时间段最长，前后的成分发音时间短而含糊，如yue。
英语的元音组合则不同，如flower, player, 元音组合中第一个因最强，中间成分最弱，第三成分次强。
The consonant system of Chinese and English languages英语有24个辅音。
汉语有22辅音。
两种语言的差异，一方面是作为范畴的差异。
这种差异为差异之易言者。
列出一定的项目（inventory）即可。
另一种差异是作为频率的差异，这种差异则难言之，但同样重要。
兼顾二者，就是一种语言研究与言语研究并重的方法。
而且，言语研究对于语言教学和具体的语言选项具有更加重要的意义。
语音四要素音高、音强、音长、音质。
Phonological Contrast of Chinese and English languageIn the phonological structure of any language, it is necessary to distinguish the segmental structure and supra-segmental structure.Segment: （1）an individual sound that occurs in a language; （2）the act of dividing utterances into sounds, morphemes, words, and phrases.In normal speech, these two are integrated as a whole. The minimal unit of the segmental structure is segmental phonemes, i.e. consonants and vowels. Segmental structures form the structure of words.Suprasegmental structure refers to the system of intonation, which consists of suprasegemental phonemes, i.e. pitch, stress, tone, intonation, and juncture（The transition or mode of transition from one sound to another in speech.）In the following, our focus will be shifted to the suprasegmental（including prosodic） features.Pitch: The pitch of sound is dependent on the rate/frequency of vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx. A sound with a higher pitch has a higher frequency of vibration than a low-pitched sound.Stress/stressed syllables: Stress refers to the degree of force used in the production of a syllable. It also refers to a syllable with relatively greater length, loudness, and/or higher pitch than other syllables in a word. Such a syllable is perceived as prominent.Also called accent.Lexical stress:Lexical stress is arbitrary.For multi-syllabic words, there might be two stresses, one is primary stress, and the other secondary stress.Sentential stress usually falls upon the concrete words or notional words.But also, the distribution of stresses might be affected by the expression of emphasis of different words. So in principle, a stress may fall on any syllable.But the change of stress change the part of speech of a word, for instance:PREsent presENT CONvict conVICT INsult insultPay attention to the shift of stress when a phrase changes into a compound noun.1 1 1 2a white house/ White Housea black board /a black boardA high chair/ a high chairA blackbird/ a black birdAn iced tea/ an ice-creamSentence stress:In general situations, the notional words are normally stressed. Nevertheless, sentence stress is often used to indicate emphasis, so the stress might change according to the need to emphasize different words.E.g.I think therefore I exist.Tone:The change of pitch results in different tones. It is a pitch contour, it extend over one syllable but not onto the next syllable. Tone: pitch variations.In Chinese pitch changes are used in different ways.In Chinese pitch can affect the meanings of words. In standard Chinese, one syllable usually can have four meanings according to the four different pitches （level/rising/falling rising/ falling）on which the syllable might be pronounced.Intonation:Intonation involves the occurrence of the recurring pitch patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on a single word or oin a group of words of varying length.Intonation: pitch stress and sound length combined together and attached to sentence or clause are called intonation.Juncture:The transition or mode of transition from one sound to another in speech.Junctures are phonetic features concerned with the phonetic phenomena associated in somelanguages word finals and word initials, some of the phonetic features of the morphologically complex words（Attention here, why morphologically complex words?）, and with the final patterns of intonation before pauses（The is actually concerned with the inter sentential phonological features of different languages.）The study of junctures of a language is often included in supra-segmental phonemes.Phonemic phonology vs. prosodic phonologyPhonemic phonology grew out of the need and search for broad descriptions of language.Phonemic analysis concentrates on the paradigmatic relation f contrast in a given environment and on the serial treatment of the phonetic data. As far as possible all phonetic features are assigned to phonemes occupying definite places in a linear succession phonemes.Prosodic analysis is not concerned with the transcription but with the providing of a framework of categories for the analysis of the ways in which different sound features function in the utterances of language.So prosodic theory effectively decoupled or detached phonological analysis from the transcriptional requirements. A prosodic study of language focuses on the interlocking and overlapping nature of the articulations and resultant phonetic features that are part of the object of phonological analysis.Prosodies are abstracted from whole sentences（sentence prosodies）and from parts thereof, but always wither reference to a given structure.Prosodic units in a top-down order include:Sentence prosodies: intonationSentences part and syllable group prosodies: the relations of length, stress, and tone between successions of syllablesSyllable prosodies: length, stress, and toneSyllable part prosodies（including syllable initial and syllable final prosodies）: plosion, affrication, labialization, etc.Phonematic units: k p t a etc.（vowels and consonants）Robins:Prosodic analysis takes into consideration the overlapping and partly simultaneous nature of natural speech, by abandoning a transcriptionally oriented and unidirectional treatment of utterances and taking into account both the syntagmatic and paradigmatic dimensions.Tone language vs. intonation languageTone language:Chinese is a tone language in which the meaning of a word is affected by the pitch and tones serving to differentiate lexical entries.In English a word might also be assigned different tones such as level, falling, falling rising or rising tones, why isn’t it called tone language?English has been sometimes referred to as intonation language because in English tones do not affect the meaning of words, but rather the meaning of phrase or sentence and provide the functional and emotional meaning of the utterance.Alternatively Chinese and English have been respectively labeled as syllable-timed language and stress timed language（Because the Chinese words mostly comprise one syllable only.）, while English words consists of one stress.Supra-segmental contrast of Chinese and EnglishSupra-segmental features——stress, tone, intonationSegments refer to the phonemes. But distinctive features can also be found to run over two or more phonemic segments. So the phonemic features that are found to run over above the level of segments are called supra-segmental features（phoneme）.Stress in English:Word stress and sentences stress.There can also be sentence stress.Parts of speech normally stressed include: n. V. a. adv. Numeral. Demonstrative pron.Unstressed include: articles, auxi. Prep, conj.Besides, Xu Yulong（p84）:Suprasegmental phonemes are used to indicate word meaning and grammatical meanings.The most important suprasegmental phonemes include the pitch, intensity, and length of voice.The change of pitch forms melody. Concerning melody or prosody, there are three points that are worth our attention:1.In terms of the length of the segments the melody runs over, melody or prosody can beclassified into tone（which runs over syllable or with words as its conveyer） andintonation（which runs over phrase or clause or sentence）. And by the way, the Chinesemelody is mainly a matter of tone（hence tone language）; While that of English is mainlyconcerned with intonation, which runs over phrase or clause（hence intonation language）.2.In terms of the acoustic quality of tone, there is the distinction between register systemof tone（音域声调系统）（tone realized through groups of level tone only but of differentpitches） and the contour（line formed by the points of the same height） system of tone（升降调声调系统）（formed by the rising and falling of the pitch. Chinese tone istypically contour tone. ）The parallel distinction can be found in intonations.Register intonation:The house, it seemed to him, was smaller than before.All words are read with level tone, but the parenthetical part is read with a level tone of comparatively lower pitch.Contour intonation:Such as the questioning intonation.3.In terms of function, in some languages such as Chinese, tone is an inherent part ofthe phonological structure of words, i.e. they serve to differentiate lexical meanings.But in English tones do not affect the meaning of words, but rather the meaning of phraseor sentence and provide the functional and emotional meaning of the utterance.As for the function of intonation, linguists disagree among themselves. Some say thedifferent intonations indicate some extra-linguistic meanings. Some say intonations arerelated to the different types of sentence patterns and communicate qualities ofinformation, such as whether it is old or new.Another important supra-segmental device is stress. Stress is related to pitch, intensity, and length of sounds. In contrast to unstressed sounds, the stressed sounds are more high-pitched, more intense, and also relatively longer.Lexical stress:Lexical stress is usually arbitrary.In some languages, lexical stress falls on certain syllables, such as in Frech, lexical stress falls usually on the final syllable of a word.But in some languages, the position of lexical stress varies from word to word, such as in English.E.g. elephant, eleven, overturn.In a language where the lexical stress is not fixed on a certain position, the change of the position of lexical stress can change the meaning of union the same segmental phonemes. E.g. Present n. vs. present v.Tone in Chinese is similar to stress in English in that they both can differentiate lexical meanings. But they differ in that the tone of Chinese language is more powerful than stress in English.Sentential stress（stresses in a intonation unit which comprises a group of successive syllables and equal to a phrase or a clause）:In both Chinese and English sentences, concrete words are usually are stressed, and the grammatical words are usually unstressed.The difference between Chinese and English sentential stress is mainly that usually each Chinese syllable has its tone so it relatively difficult to weaken the syllables in Chinese intonation unit as we very often do in English intonation units. Cf.我已看过这本书了。