一、根据意思填单词（加粗的为要填的）10个*1分1. nutrient: elements that are required for the development, maintenance, and reproduction of organisms2．nutrient cycling is the use, transformation, movement, and reuse of nutrients in ecosystems.3. fitness: a measure of the ability of an individual to produce viable offspring and contribute to future generations4. adaptation: any heritable trait possessed by an organism, be it physiological, morphological or behavioral, which aids survival or reproduction in a particular environment5. floodplain: A plain bordering a river and subject to flooding.6. population: a group of organisms of the same species occupying a given space at the same time.7. ramets：individuals that are separated but genetically identical and derived from a single zygote. 8．competition: an interaction among individuals utilizing a limited resource, resulting in reduced fitness in the competing individuals.9．fecundity: the number of eggs, seeds, or offspring in the first stage of the life cycle produced by a individual10. predation: the consumption of all or part of another individual (the prey).11. parasites: a subgroup of predators consuming the tissue of another living organism that live in close association with their host12. microparasites: parasites that multiply within or on the surface of the host13. macroparasites: parasites that grow in or on the host, but do not multiply14．mechanical weathering: physical disintegration of a rock into smaller fragments, each with the same properties as the original, which occurs mainly by temperature and pressure changes15．chemical weathering: the process by which the internal structure of a mineral is altered by the addition or removal of elements.16. relative humidity: the air water vapor content expressed as a ratio to the saturated water content at that water temperature.17. field capacity: the upper limit of the water-holding capacity of a soil. This is the amount of water which can be held by soil pores against the force of gravity.18. permanent wilting point: the lower limit of water availability– the soil water content at which plants wilt and are unable to recover.19. metabolic water: the water released during cellular respiration20. intraspecific competition: the competition occurring between members of the same species二、填空（自己看那些是重点）10个*2分1. Pathways of nutrient loss in terrestrial ecosystems: released to the atmosphere; lost in water; lost in fire/harest/deforestation2. If fitness differences have a genetic component, then the genetic make-up of the subsequent generations will be altered. This process is known as natural selection or ‘survival of the fittest’.3. Adaptation is the result of natural selection acting on heritable differences in fitness.4. Pathways of nutrient gain in aquatic ecosystems: streamflow; permanent sediments5. Ectotherms and endotherms differ in the extent to which they are able to maintain a constant body temperature.6. The thermoneutral zone is the range of environmental temperatures in which an endotherm has only to exert a minimum metabolic effort in order to maintain a constant body temperature.7. In many communities, there is an approximate balance between the carbon released to the atmosphere from respiration and carbon fixed by photosynthesis.8. The unique relationship between water and living organisms stems from the fact that water is a universal solvent: almost anything will dissolve in water to some degree.9. Terrestrial organisms face 2 major challenges: evaporative loss to environment and reduced access to replacement water.10. Predators vary in their diet breadth, with some species being extremely selective specialists, concentrating exclusively on one prey type, whilst others are more generalists, being able to feed on a number of prey species.11. In vertebrates, infection by microparasites results in a strong immunological response: (i) the cellular immune response, where specialized cells directly attack pathogen cells; (ii) the B-cell immune response, which gives rise to antibodies.12. The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise 1 cm3 by 1 ℃.13. A major problem faced by terrestrial organisms is the loss of a continuous supply of water necessary to keep tissue surfaces moist.三判断10个*1分1. Homeotherm: An organism, such as a mammal or bird, has a body temperature that is constant and largely independent of the temperature of its surroundings.2. Poikilotherm: An organism, such as a fish or reptile, has a body temperature that varies with the temperature of its surroundings.3. Ectotherms are organisms which are largely reliant on external sources of heat to raise their body temperature.4. Endotherms are organisms capable of generating heat internally in order to raise their body temperature.5. Occasionally, interactions between species occur where one species exhibits no effect, whilst the other either benefits(commensualism) or is adversely affected (amensualism).6. Generally, parasites tend to be more specialist than true predators.7. Herbivores tend to be more specialist than carnivores.8. Individuals within a host population are very rarely equally at risk of being successfully attacked by a given parasite.9.As the disabling effects of microparasitism often depend on the disruption of processes at the cellular level, smallgenetical changes to cellular proteins may alter the ability of the parasite to disable its host.10.If the stable age distribution is disrupted by any temporary event, such as a harsh winter, disease or starvation, the agecomposition will gradually restore itself when conditions and the birth and death rates return to normal.11.Exploitation competition: Individuals only interact indirectly, by depleting the resource in short supply. Reducedfitness occurs due to a shortfall in resource availability.12.Interference competition: Individuals interact directly, most obviously, in the case of some animal species, by fighting,but als o by producing toxins (e.g. plant allelopathy). Fitness reduction in the ‘loser’ in such interactions may be due to the interference (e.g. injuries or death) as well as the lack of resource access.13.Scramble competition: Resource distribution within a species may be fairly even, so that most individuals get asimilar amount of food. Under high densities, no individual gets enough to survive, and the population crashes.14.Contest competition: In some species, high densities result in a very uneven distribution of resources, so that someindividuals grow and reproduce whilst others die.15.The genotype is the genetic composition of an individual while the phenotype is the individual organism, a product ofthe interaction between its genotype and its environment.16.The ability of the phenotype to vary due to environmental influences on its genotype is known as phenotypicplasticity.17.Ammonia is released during the breakdown of vertebrate excreta and is an important loss of N.18.In some water-logged soils and floodplain forests, some bacteria are capable of reducing nitrate and nitrite to N2during the process of denitrification19.The loss of nutrients in water is mainly in solution with the exception of phosphorus and iron which are immobile insoils.20.Some chemical elements occur in rocks of the lithosphere as potassium in feldspar and calcium in calcium carbonate. 四名词解释5个*3分1. The amount of water that would be transpired from a site, assuming no soil water limitation and complete vegetation cover, is the potential evapotranspiration rate.2. Life expectancy is the average number of years to be lived in the future by population members of a given age.3. Life table is the table showing the number of individuals present at different life stages or ages together with age-specific survival rates and age-specific mortality rates calculated for each stage.4. Survivorship curve is a graph showing the proportion of survivors on a logarithmic scale through each phase of life.5. The process of releasing ammonia or ammonium by some bacteria and fungi working on wastes and remains is called ammonification.6. The death rate, or mortality rate, is the number of individuals dying during a given time interval divided by the average population size over that time interval.7. The probability of dying is the number dying per individual present at the start of the time period.8. The age-specific birthrate is the number of offspring produced per unit time by females in specific age classes.9. The realized natality is the actual successful reproduction per female over a period of time.10．countercurrent exchange: The interaction between the departing air and the respiratory surfaces results in an efficient return of moisture to the tissues.五简答3个*5分1. Nitrogen fixation答：1、atmospheric (lighting闪电)2、man-made （fertilizer化肥）3、bacteria(root moclules of some legume plants豆科植物的根瘤)2. Phosphorus cycle答：phosporus 磷←water remains↓↑phosphate rocks磷矿herbivore \carnivore食草动物| 食肉动物↓↑Phosphate salts磷酸盐→plants植物3. Three patterns of survivorship curves答：图见课本P79Typ eⅰshows good survival of young with high death rates only in old age.(stereotyping the kind of pattern found in large mammals).类型一为年轻个体存活率高，高死亡率仅发生于老年个体（在大型哺乳动物中可找到这一类型）Type ⅱ shows a steady mortality throughout life (reflecting the pattern found in some bird species) 类型二在整个生命过程有一个稳定的死亡率（可在鸟类中见到此类型）Type ⅲ represents very high mortality in the young (as occurs,for exanple,in spawning fish andfungi) 类型三年轻个体死亡率很高（例如，可产卵的鱼和真菌）4. Balancing heat gain against heat lossHs = Hm + Hcd + Hcv + Hr – HeHs→Storage of the total heat 储藏的总热量Hm→metabolic heat 代谢热Hcd→heat conduction 热传导Hcv→convection heat 对流热Hr→heat radiation热辐射He→evaporation heat 蒸发热5. Water regulation on land by animalsWia= Wd + Wf + Wa - We – WsWia→internal animal water 动物体内水分Wd→drink water 喝的水Wf→food water 食物中的水Wa→air water 皮肤吸收空气中的水We→evaporation water 蒸发的水Ws→secretion water 分泌物中的水6. Competitive exclusion principleTwo species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely. When two species compete, one will be a better competitor and thus have higher fitness and eventually exclude the other.生态位接近的两个种不能永久的共存。