．功能对等理论功能对等理论由美国人尤金·A·奈达（Eugene Nida）提出，奈达师从几位著名的结构主义语言大师，本身也是有重要地位的语言学家，曾任美国语言学会主席。
但这位在学术界赫赫有名的人物，偏偏远离学术重镇，默默地在美国圣经协会供职半个多世纪。
他一生的主要学术活动都围绕《圣经》翻译展开。
在《圣经》翻译的过程中，奈达从实际出发，发展出了一套自己的翻译理论，最终成为翻译研究的经典之一。
奈达理论的核心概念是“功能对等”。
所谓“功能对等”，就是说翻译时不求文字表面的死板对应，而要在两种语言间达成功能上的对等。
奈达“功能对等”理论的核心是“译文读者对原文的反应与原文读者对原文的反应应该是一致的”。
进而他将翻译定义为,“从语义到文体在译语中用最近似的自然对等值再现原语的信息(李文革,2004:115)”,该定义中的“信息”应该包括原语传达的各种信息:语义的、文体的和文学形象的、情景的和心理效果方面等等。
奈达的功能对等翻译共有四个标准:(1)传达信息;(2)传达原作的精神和风格;(3)语言顺畅,完全符合译语规范和惯例;(4)读者反应类似。
这对于文学小说的翻译有重大的指导意义1.Katharina Reiss：Text TypologyThe theories concerning text type and translation are mostly based on the work done by Buhler in the 1930’s . Buhler’s idea is to categorize text on the basis of their main function. He defines three types: conative, expressive and representative.Buhler’s idea is to categorize text on the basis of their main function. He defines three types: conative, expressive and representative. Buhler’s ideas are further developed by Katharina Reiss (1971). Her text typology is 1) the informative text where the content is the main focus. (These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc.); 2) the expressive text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. (Both the author or the sender and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts. ); 3) the operative text where the focus is “appellative”by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. This form of language is usually dialogic or conversational. In addition, Reiss defines a fourth category, audio-visual texts. This is a sort of mixed category, which can include texts from all the other categories, as long as they are intended for audio-visual media. Functional Features of Text Typology and their links to translation methods Text typology informative Expressive operative Language function Informative (objects and facts) Expressive (expressing the sender’s attitudes) Appellative (making an appeal to text receiver) Language dimension Logical aesthetic Dialogue/conversation Text focus Content-focused Form-focused Appellative-focused TT should Transmit referential content Transmit aesthetic form Elicit-desired response Translation method ‘plain prose’explicitation as required (直白语言，按需要明晰化) Identifying method, （同一策略）adopt perspective of SＴauthor ‘adaptive’, equivalent effect （顺应、等2.Hans J．Vermeer：SkopostheorieSkopostheorie regards adequacy as its method of assessing whether the translation quality is good enough.3.Justa Holz-Manttari：Theory of Translational ActionThe German school of functionalist translation theory,which has put forward the concept of "translational action",defines translation as a kind of activities aiming at the prospective translation function and skopos,thus breaking the static ST-oriented research pattern and viewing translation as a selective and intentional intercultural communicative action intermediated by thetranslator.4.Christiane Nord：Function plus Loyaltytranslators are responsible for the effects for either the target audiences or the source-text authors or the client or even the translator as an individualA complex action designed to achieve a particular purposetarget-text should be responsible for the source-text1.Equivalent TranslationThe strategy of substituting corresponding expressions in the target languagewhich carries equivalent referential or pragmatic meaning as that in the source language Can be defined as“equivalent translation’，'which is mainly applied to universally-used signs．Now that English-speaking countries have their own standardand usage for such public signs,it is better for Chinese translators to follow the convention．The application of international standard produces achieves equivalencein the sense of functionalist approaches．A large mount of public signs can resort to the existing English expression in theprocess of translation．These universally—used signs are the common names and termsof traffic，public and commercial services，tourist attractions and SO on．For instance，the sign“男卫生间”in stores can be substituted by“Men's Room’’or“Men”as theyarc called in English-speaking countries．2 Formulated TranslationSome restricting and compelling public signs cannot be directly translated by existing international public signs．However,translators伽still borrow the structure and expressions of these established public signs．In other words，the translation of these two kinds of public signs can be formulated and follow the international standard．According to the particular style and language features of public signs，there are mainly four patterns can be formulated：OmissionIn order to achieve literary grace，a large number of Chinese public signs (especially some slogans)tend to use ornate diction,phrases and sentences in parallel structures．The ornate diction and phrases can realize the effect of rhythm and parallel sentences can produce the effect of tight structure．However,the rhythmical beauty and structural harmony in the public signs lead to the weak in information-conveying and communication purpose．That is to say,in the C—E translation of public signs, some hollow words which are not in tune with the target language culture can be justifiably omitted．Therefore，translation technique“omission'’can be employed to go against unnecessary repetition in the public signs translation to achieve conciseness and avoid word redundancy.Theories of Functionalist ApproachesThe 1970s saw the emergence and flourishing in Germany of functionalist approaches to the research on translation．As a valuable complement to translationtheories，functionalist theories have presented an entirely new perspective totranslation research．As mentioned in the book Translating as a Purposeful Activity,Nord points out that“Functionalist means concentrating on the function or functionsof texts and translations and functionalism is a broad term for various theories that’approach translation in this way…”Nord，2001：1)．．‘There have been four distinguished contributors to the formation of functionalist theory：Katharine Reiss，Hans J．V ermeer,Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord．All of them are German scholars，so the theory is regarded as the“German School’’of functionalist theory．Thus，the focus of this chapter is on the following four parts：1．Katharina Reiss’S early work on text typology；2．Hans J．Vermeer's skopos theory；3．Justa Holz-Manttari’S theory of translational action；4．Christiane Nord’S function·plus-loyalty model功能理论下唐山市公示语翻译第1章介绍1.1公共标志的定义公共标志指在公共场所使用的语言向公众传递信息。