Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged accor ding to certain rules; can’t be combined at will.Arbitrary---- no intrinsic（natural）connection between the word and the thing it denotes。

Convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning.Symbolic---- language signs are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.V ocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. Design features: the features that define our human languages.Design features:Arbitrariness.Linguistic forms are said to lack any physical correspondence with entities in the world to which they refer.Duality:By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that unites of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.The Advantages of Duality:A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements-Creativity:By creativity we mean Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Displacement:Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Human language is stimulus-free(无刺激的)Origin of languang:The divine-origin theory”:man was created almost instantaneously, and at the moment of his creation, he was provided with speech as a divine gift.(language was given by God)The invention theory:which holds that man invented his own language.‘yo-he-ho’ theory (language first began in social setting, that of men working together)‘pooh-pooh’ theory (expression of emotion as ‘cries of nature’)bow-wow’theory (imitation of the sound of nature)The evolutionary theory:Stress the importance of the biological base.Some genetic mutation leads to development of modern man. Brain capacity outweighs other animals. (language is developed by a long process of evolution involing biological and social factors as a whole.) Functions of Language:1.5.1 Informative:when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world.1.5.2 Interpersonal function:when language is used to establish and maintain social relations.1.5.3 Performative:the use of language to ‘do things’, to perform actions.Primarily used to change the social status of the person, often in quite formal and ritualized language.It can also extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasion.1.5.4 Emotive function:when language is used to change the emotional states of an audienceor used to express the speakers’ emotions or attitudes towards something or some person.1.5.5 Phatic communion---refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchange information or ideas (e.g. comments on the weather, or enquiries about health). (the social interaction of language)保持人际1.5.6 Recreational function：when language is used for the pure joy of using it.1.5.7 Metalingual function：Language can be used to talk about itself。

语言讨论语言。

Tool language, such as in paraphrases, in translation works, etc.This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.Branches:1.7.1 Phonetics语音学---The science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.（production,transmission,perception.）1) articulatory phonetics ( 发音语言学) is the study of the way speech sounds are made by the vocal organs;2) acoustic phonetics(声学语音学)studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear;3) auditory phonetics(听觉语音学Perceptual) studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain.1.7.2 Phonology-音系学-- studies the sound system of languages. The aim of phonology is to demonstrate the patterns of distinctive sound found in a language, and to make as general statements as possible about the nature of sound systems in the languages of the world.1.7.3 Morphology-形态学--- studies the structure of forms of words, primarily through the use of the morpheme construct.1.7.4 Syntax句法学---the study of the interrelationships between elements of sentence structure, and of the rules governing the arrangement of sentences in sequences.1.7.5 Semantics语义学--the study of meaning in language.1.7.6 Pragmatics语用学--the study of meaning in the context of use.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 语言心理学--- studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and the psychological processes thought to underlie that behavior: (a) the mental process that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and (b) how humans learn language.1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive：Descriptive描述型---to describe the fact of linguistic usage as they are, and not how they ought to be, with reference to some real or imagined ideal state.---People do not say X.Prescriptive规定型---a term used to characterize any approach which attempt to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used.----Don’t say X.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic(by Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure)Synchronic 公识性(linguistics)---languages are studied at some point of time in history. : one describes a ‘state’ of language, disregardi ng whatever changes might be taking place.不注重变化e.g. A Grammar of Modern Greek, Shakespeare's language, etc.Diachronic历时性----languages are studied as its changes through time. The description of language is from point of view of their historical development 变化for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms.e.g. How is the Indo-European family develops through history?1.9.3 Langue & parole（by de Saussure）Langue语言---refers to the language system shared by a community of speakersParole言语---is the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.1.9.4 Competence and performance（by Noam Chomsky）Competence语言能力----refers to a person’s knowledge of his language, the system of rules which he has mastered so that he is able to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences, and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.Performance语言应用（表达能力）---refers to language seen as a set of specific utterances produced by native-speakers, as encountered in a corpus.（the actual use of language in concrete situations ）。