acronym: is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(e g. [t h] is an allophone of /t/ in English. When /t/ occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated [t]. Both [t h] and t] are allophones of the phoneme /t/. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. articulatoryphonetics: the studyof production ofspeech sounds.assimilation: thechange of a sound asa result of theinfluence of anadjacent sound,which is morespecifically called“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.assimilation theory:language (sound,word, syntax, etc)change or processby which features ofone element changeto match those ofanother thatprecedes or follows.back-formation: anabnormal type ofword-formationwhere a shorterword is derived bydeleting animagined affix froma longer formalready in thelanguage.blending: arelatively complexform ofcompounding, inwhich two words areblended by joiningthe initial part of thefirst word and thefinal part of thesecond word, or byjoining the initialpars of the twowords.bound morpheme:an element ofmeaning which isstructurallydependent on theworld it is added to,e. g. the pluralmorpheme in dogˊs.broad and narrowtranscription: theuse of a simple setof symbols intranscription iscalled broadtranscription; theuse of a simple setof symbols intranscription iscalled broadtranscription; while,the use of morespecific symbols toshow more phoneticdetail is referred toas narrowtranscription.category: parts ofspeech and function,such as theclassification ofwords in terms ofparts of speech, theidentification ofterms of parts ofspeech, theidentification offunctions of wordsin term of subject,predicate, etc.creativity:bycreativity we meanlanguage isresourceful becauseof its duality and itsrecursiveness. Oneof the reasons whylanguage is actuallya far morecomplicated entitythan traffic lights isthat we can use it tocreate newmeanings.concord: alsoknown as agreement,is the requirementthat the forms oftwo or more wordsin a syntaeticrelationship shouldagree with eachother in terms ofsome categories.coarticulation: akind of phoneticprocess in whichsimultaneous oroverlappingarticulations areinvolved.Coarticulation canbe further dividedinto anticipatorycoarticulation andperseverativecoarticulation.compound:Polymorphemicwords which consistwholly of freemorphemes, such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite, etc.complementarydistribution: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. consonant: they are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. complementary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely, such male: female, present: absent. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent wordsand the way they arecombined.conceptualmeaning: thecentral par ofmeaning, whichcontains logical,cognitive, ordenotative content.connotation: a termin a contrast withdenotation, meaningthe properties of theentity a worddenotes.converse antonymy:a special kind ofantonymy in thatremembers of a pairdo not constitute apositive-negativeopposition; such asbuy; sell, lend:borrow, above:below, etc.communicativecompetence: asdefined by Hymes,the knowledge andability involved inputting language tocommunicative use.Conversationalimplicature: theextra meaning notcontained in theliteral utterances,understandable tothe listener onlywhen he shares thespeaker’sknowledge or knowswhy and how heviolatesintentionally one ofthe four maxims ofthe CooperativePrinciple(CP).constative: anutterance by which aspeaker expresses apropisition whichmay be true or false.CP (CooperativePrinciple): tospecify the CPfurther, Griceintroduced fourcategories ofmaxims as follows:Quantity: make yourcontribution asinformation as isrequired. Quality:try to make yourcontribution one thatis true. Relation: berelevant. Manner: beperspicuous.deep structure: theabstractrepresentation of thesyntactic propertiesof a construction, i.e. the underlyinglevel of structuralrelations between itsdifferentconstituents, such asthe relation between.The underlyingsubject and its verb,or a verb and itsobject.descriptive: a kindof linguistic study inwhich things are justdescribed.denotation: the coresense of a word or aphrase that relates itto phenomena in thereal world.diachronic: thestudy of a languageis carried throughthe course of itshistory.dialect: A regionalvariety of alanguagedistinguished bypronunciation,grammar, orvocabulary,especially a varietyof speech differingfrom the standardliterary language orspeech pattern of theculture in which itexists:displacement: onedesign feature ofhuman language,which means humanlanguage enabletheir users tosymbolize objects,events and conceptswhich are notpresent c in time andspace, at themoment ofcommunication.Distinctive features:a term of phonology,i. e. a propertywhich istinguishesone phoneme fromanother.dissimilatoin: the influence exercised. By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent t Any to any of its constituents.emic: a term incontrast with eticwhich originatesfrom Americanlinguist Pike’sdistinction ofphonetics andphonemics. An ernicset of speech actsand events must beone that is validatedas meaningful viafinal reaurce to thenative members of aspeech communityrather than viaappeal to theinvestigator’singenuity orintuition alone.etic: a term incontrast with emicwhich originatesfrom Americanlinguist Pike’sdistinction ofphonetics andphonemics. Beingetic mans makingfar too many, as wellas behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations, justas was often thecase with phoneticvs. phonemicanalysis inlinguistics proper.etymology:Theorigin and historicaldevelopment of alinguistic form asshown bydetermining its basicelements, earliestknown use, andchanges in form andmeaning, tracing itstransmission fromone language toanother, identifyingits cognates in otherlanguages, andreconstructing itsancestral formwhere possible.Fossilization: itrefers to thisphenomenon-non-target forms becomefixed in theinterlanguage. Manyexamples can befound - Mukkatesh,looking at thewritten productionof 80 students at aJordanian university,found that after 11years instruction inlearning English,they continuedmaking errors suchas the use of simplepast instead ofsimple present - noamount ofgrammaticalexplanation or oferror correction hadany effect.folk etymology: achange in form of aword or phrase, resuiting from anincorrect popularnation of the originor meaning of theterm or from theinfluence of morefamiliar termsmistakenly taken tobe analogous.free morpheme: anelement of meaningwhich takes theform of anindependent word.government andbinding theory: it isthe fourth period ofdevelopment ofChomsky’s TGGrammar, whichconsists of x-bartheory, Case Theory,Controll Theory, andBinding Theory.grammatical word:word expressinggrammaticalmeanings, such asconjunctions,prepositions, artidesand pronouns.gradableantongyrny:members of thiskind are gradable, ias long: short, big:small.hyponymy: arelation betweentwo words, in whichthe meaning of oneword (thesuperordinate) isincluded in themeaning anotherword (thehyponym) .ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention. interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language, i. e. the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles, which include the communication roles created by language itself; and also for getting things done, by means of the interaction between one person and another inflection: the manifestation ofgrammaticalrelationshipsthrough the additionof inflectionalaffixes, such asnumber, per son,finiteness, aspectand case, which donot change thegrammatical class ofthe stems to whichthey are attached.isolating language:a language in whichword forms do notchange, and inwhich grammaticalfunctions are shownby word order andthe use of functionwords.inflectionallanguage: alanguage in whichthe form of a wordchanges to show achange in meaningor grammaticalfunction, often thereis no cleardistinction betweenthe basic part of theword and the partwhich shows agrammaticalfunction such asnumber or tense.immediateconstituent analysis:the analysis of asentence in terms ofits immediateconstituents—wordgroups (or phrases),which are in turnanalyzed into theimmediateconstituents of theirown, and theprocess goes onuntil the ultimateconstituents arereached.IPA: theabbreviation ofInternationalPhonetic Alphabet,which is devised bythe InternationalPhoneticAssociation in 1888on the basis of thephonetic alphabetproposed at the time.Since then it hasundergone a numberof revisions. IPA is acomprised systememploying symbolsof all sources, suchas Roman smallletters, italicsuprighted, obsoleteletters, Greek letters,diacritics, etc.langue: thelinguisticcompetence of thespeaker.lexeme: A separateunit of meaning,usually in the formof a word(e.g. dogin the manger).lexicon: a list of allthe words in alanguage assigned tovarious lexicalcategories andprovided withsemanticinterpretation.lexical word: wordhaving lexicalmeanings, that is,those which refer tosubstance, actionand quality, such asnouns, verbs,adjectives, andverbs.loanblend: aprocess in whichpart of the form isnative and part isborrowed, but themeaning is fullyborrowed.loanshift: a processin which themeaning isborrowed, but theform is native.loanword: a processin which both formand meaning areborrowed with oniya slight adaptation,in some cases, to thephonological systemof the new languagethat they enter.loss: thedisappearance of thevery sound as amorpheme in thephonologicalsystem.locutionary act: theact of sayingsomething; it’s anact of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon ,and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of rnacrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc. Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract. Meaning: it has always been a central topic in human scholarship, though term “semantics”has only a history of alittle over a hundredyears. The fact thatover the yearsnumerousdictionaries havebeen produced witha view to explainingthe meaning ofwords also bearswitness to its longtradition.Nevertheless,semantics remainsthe least known areain linguistics,compared withphonetics,phonology,morphology andsyntax.metalanguage:certain kinds oflinguistic signs orterms for theanalysis anddescription ofparticular studies.minimal pairs:when two differentforms are identicalin every way expectfor one soundsegment whichoccurs in the placein the string, the twowords are calledminimal pairs.morpheme: thesmallest unit oflanguage in terms ofrelationship betweenexpression andcontent, a unit thatcannot be dividedinto further smallunits withoutdestroying ordrastically alteringthc meaning,whether it is lexicalor grammatical.Q-principle: one ofthe two principles inHorn’s scale, i.e.Make yourcontributionsufficient (ofquantity1) ; Say asmuch as you can(given R).paradigmaticrelation: a relationholding betweenelements replaceablewith each other at aparticular place in astructure, orbetween oneelement present andhe others absent.parole: the actualphenomena or dataof linguistics(utterances).performance: theactual use oflanguage in concretesituations.phatic communion:one function ofhuman language,which refers to thesocial interaction oflanguage.Phoneme: theabstract element ofsound, identified asbeing distinctive in aparticular language.Place ofarticulation: in theproduetion ofconsonants, place ofarticulation refers towhere in the vocaltract there isapproximation ,narrowing, or theobstruction of air.prescriptive: a kindof linguistic study inwhich things areprescribed howought to be, i. e.laying down rulesfor language use.prepositional logic:also known asprepositionalcalculus orsentential calculus,is the study of thetruth Conditions forpropositions: howthe truth of acompositeproposition isdetermined by thetrath value of itsconstituentpropositions and theconnections betweenthem.Propositions:whatever is seen asexpressed by asentence whichmakes a statement.It is a property ofpropositions thatthey have truth values. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.r-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i. e. make your contribtution necessary (G. Relation, Quantity2, Manner) ; Say no more than you must (given Q). reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i. e. to talk about things in context.relational opposites: converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. There are always tvo entities involved. One presupposes the other. The sho, better: worse, etc are instances of relational opposites. rivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation betweenroots and affixes.rlocutionary act:the act performed byor resulting fromsaying soething, it’sthe consequence of,or the changebrought about theutterance.root: the base fromof a word thatcannot further beanalyzed 4.vitl,puttotal loss of identity.allomorph: any ofthe different form ofa morpheme. Forexample, in Englishthe plural morphemeis but it ispronounceddifferently indifferentenvironments as /s/in cats, as /z/ in dogsand as /iz/ in classes.So /s/, /z/, and /iz!are all allomorphs ofthe pluralmorpheme.surface structure:the final stage in thesyntactic derivationof a construction,which closelycorresponds to thestructuralorganization of aconstruction peopleactually produce andreceive.c-command: one ofthe similarities, or ofthe more gener.Stem: anymorpheme orcombination ofrnorphemes towhich an)nfleetionalaffix can be added.syllabus: theplanning of a courseof instruction. It is adescription of thecousr content,teaching proceduresand learningexperiences.synchronic: a kindof description whichtakes a fixed instant(usuai1notnecessarily, thepresent) ,as its pointof observation. Mostgrammars are of thiskind.syntagrnaticrelation: a relationbetween one itemand others in asequence, orbetween elementswhich are allpresent.sense: the literalmeaning of a wordor an expression,independent ofsituational context.synonymy: is thetechnical name forthe samenessrelation.Suprasegmental:Suprasegmentalfeatures are thoseaspects of speechthat involve morethan single soundsegments. Theprincipalsupra-segmentalfeatures are syllable,stress, tone, andintonation.superordinate: theupper term inhyponymy, i. e. theclass name. Asuperordinateusually has severalhyponyrns. Underanimal, for example,there are cats, dogs,pigs, etc.selection restriction:semantic restrictionsof the noun phrasesthat iciilare,cicalitem can take, e. g.regret requires ahuman subject.transfer: theinfluence of mothertongue upon thesecond language.When structures ofthe two languagesare similar, we canget positive transferor facilitation; whenthe two languagesare different instructures, negativetransfer or inferenceoccurs and result inerrors.textual function:the use of languagethe provide formaking links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure. There are four kinds of validity, i. e. content validity, construct validity, empirical valiodity, and face validity. voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant by vibrating the vocal cords.Vowel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.。