Process-oriented theories: are concerned with how the mind organizes new information such as habit.formation,.induction,making.inference,.hypothesis.testing.and.generalization.Condition-oriented theories: emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receives, and the atmosphere.Behaviorist theory, skinner,learning process of habit formation&conditioning,a stimulus-response theory ,imitation&repetition SRR,audio-lingual method,external factors,the idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repletion and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised.Cognitive theory, chomsky,learning:creative process, internal factors,students are asked to thinking and allow to create their own sentence based on their understanding of certain rules ,language is not a form of behavior, it is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system.Constructivist theory,personal construction,dewey, believes that learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already knows.Socio-constructivist theory, similar to constructivist theory, socio-constructivist theory emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.learning is best achieved through dynamic interaction between the teacher&learner&between learnersLanguage teacher qualifications：1、a good command of spoken and written language2、formulate theory presupposition3、language background and experience4、know how languages are learnt 5、the ability to use methods in various situations6、deep understanding of cultural background7、understanding the principles of teaching.These elements can be categorized into three groups：ethic devotion，professional qualities and personal stylesCommunicative Competence:Hedge,:linguistic（knowledge of the language itself,its form and meaning）,pragmatic(the appropriate use of the language in social context),discourse(one ability to create coherent written text or conversation and the ability to understand it) ,strategic(strategies one employs when there is communication breakdown due to lack of resource),fluency(ability to link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate to slowness or undue hesitation)Views on language.Structural view —The founder：Saussure—The structural view of language sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems：1、the sound system（phonology）2、sound combinations（morphology）3、meaning for communication（syntax）—Learning the language is to learn the structural items，study the inner structure and rule of language，ignore the social functions of the language。

Functional view— Representative：Johnson、marrow、swain canal (the core: grammar) —The function view not only sees language as a linguistic system but also a means for doing things—Learners learn a language in order to be able to doing things with it .Use the linguistic structure to express functions.Interactional view — Emphasis：appropriateness — Language is a communicative tool，which main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people—Learners need to know the rules for using the language in certain context—The structural view limits knowing a language to knowing its structural rules and vocabularyCLT（交际英语教学）:to help the learners acquire communicative nguage in real life is used to perform certain communication functions; use all skills: A. Receptive skill: listening and reading B. Productive skill: speaking and writing; used in a certain social context: teach the part of language in real life rather than all the language students develop all the language skills. Traditional pedagogy (传统教学法): focus on the forms of language.Principle of CLT:communication principle(involve real communication),task principle(carrying out meaning),meaningfulness principle(meaningful to leaner)Howatt proposes a weak and a strong version of CLT.Weak version: learners first acquire language as a structural system and then learn how to use it in communication.Strong version: language is acquired through communication. Classroom activity:precommunicative activity(structural activity:primary focus on linguistic forms,quasi-communicative activity:focus on forms plus meanings)communicative activity(functional communicative activity:focus on meanings plus forms,social interaction activity:primary focus on meanings)Tasks are activities where the target language is used by the leaner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.Four components of a task: a purpose, a context, a process, and a product.Tasks focus on the complete act of communication. (Purposeful & contextualized communication). Exercises focus the students’ attention on the individual aspects of language, such as vocabulary, grammar or individual skills. (Focus on individual language items)Exercise-task comes halfway between tasks and exercises, consists of contextualized practice of language item.Six criteria for evaluating classroom activity:communicative purpose,communicative desire,content not form,variety of language,not teaching intervention,no materials control TBLT:a further development of communicative language teaching.it shares the same beliefs ,as language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life,stressed the importance combine form-focused teaching with communication-focus teachingPPP: presentation (introduces new vocabulary and grammatical structures), practice (the lesson moves from controlled practice to guided practice and exploitation of the texts when necessary) and production (the students are encouraged to use what they are learned and practiced to perform communicative tasks)Five steps of designing task:think about students need interest and ability,brainstorm possible task,evaluate the list,choose the language itemLesson Planning: is a framework of a lesson in which teachers make advance decisions about what they hope to achieve and how they would like to achieve it. Principles for good lesson planning: aim, variety, flexibility, learnability, and linkage.Variety: planning a number of different types of activities and where possible, introducing students to a wide selection of materials so that learning is always interesting, motivating and never monotonous for the students.Flexibility: preparing some extra and alternative tasks and activities at the class does not always go according to the plan so that teachers always have the option to cope with the unexpected situations rather than being the slaves of written plans or one methodology.Learnability:within capability of the students, not be too easy or beyond or below the students’ coping ability.Linkage: easy task followed by a comparatively difficult one, or do a series of language-focused activities to get the students prepared linguistically.Macro planning involves the following:A. Knowing about the profession,B.knowing about the institution,C. Knowing about the learners,D. Knowing about the curriculum/syllabus E．Knowing about the textbook F．Knowing about the objectives Components of a lesson plan:A. Background information,B Teaching aims C. Language contents and skills D. stages and procedures E. Teaching aids F. End of lesson summary G.. Optional activities and assignments H. After lesson reflectionClassroom management is the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom.The role of the teacher (based on the function of the teacher):1. Controller2. Assessor:3. Organizer4.Prompter5.Participant6.Resource-provide(:facilitator,guide,researcher)There are rules to follow for making instructions effective.The first is to use simple instructions andmake them suit the comprehensive level of the students.The second rule is to use the mother-tongueonly when it is necessary.Give students time to get used to listening to English instructions and help themake an effort to understand e body language to assist understanding and stick to it each timeyou teach the class.The common student groupings are: whole class work;pair work; group work; individual studyMeasures for indisciplined acts and badly behaving students:act immediately,stop the class,rearrange the seats,change the activities,talk to students after class,create a code of bahaviour,Advice about problems on class: deal with it quietly,don’t take things personally,don’t use threats.Discipline refers to a code of conduct which binds a teacher and a group of students together sothat learning can be more effectiveQuestioning in the classroom:Classification of question types: 1.closed questions and open questions 2.display questions and genuine questions 3.lower-order questions and higher-order questions4.taxonomy.Closed questions refer to those with only one single correct answer while open questionsmay invite many different answers. Display questions are those that the answers are already known tothe teacher and they are used for checking if students know the answer, too. Genuine questions are questions which are used to find out new information and since they often reflect real context, they aremore communicative. Lower-order questions refer to those that simple require recalling of informationor memorization of facts while higher order questions require more reasoning, analysis, and evaluation. Question in the class,Purpose: to focus on the students’ attention;to invite thinking and imagination; tocheck the understanding; to simulate the students to recall information; to challenge students; to assess learning.How to maintain the discipline:create a code of behavior,be consistent in applying the rules,be friendly and talk to students,immediately action, be fair to everyone deal with problems impersonallyDealing with errors ,Mistake-with nothing to do with language competence (caused by.carelessness →self-correction)Error----- has sth to do with the language competence (caused by lacking ofknowledge→be dealt with the help of the teacher and other classmates)Dealing with spoken errors a.fluency activity ----after the activityb. accuracy activity ----while the activity,How to correct a. indirectteacher correction b. direct teacher correction c.self-correction,d. peer- correctionThe role of pronunciation:views:a. pronunciation will take care of itself needn’t teach pronunciation,b. poor pronunciation is a great hindrance in language learning.Goal of teaching pronunciation::Consistency: the pronunciation should be smooth and natural.Intelligibility: the pronunciation should be understandable to the listeners,Communicative efficiency: the pronunciation should help convey the meaning that is intended by the speaker.Aspects of pronunciation ①focus on sounds, stress and intonation, these change the meaning of a sentence②The ways of teach pronunciation: Step1. Giving model Step2. Imitating Step3. Checking (explaining) Step4. Giving examples Step5. Comparing Step6. Meaningful practicePractising sound:Focusing on a sound,Perception practice: using minimal pairs, which order, same or different? Odd and out, Completion.Production practice: listen and repeat, fill in the blanks, make up sentences, use meaningful context, use picture, use tongue twisters.Making the students aware ofwhere to stress the word or phrase:use gesture,the voice,the blackboarddifferent ways of presenting grammar: The deductive method, the inductive method, and the discovery method.The deductive method:Step:presentation of the grammar rules,study of the examples,conclusion drills.Grammar practice is usually divided into two categories, mechanical practice and meaningful/communicative practice Mechanical practice: involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy. Students pay repeated attention to a key element in a structure. Substitution drill and transformation drills.Meaningful practice: focus on the production, comprehension or exchange of meaning though the students keep an eye on the way newly learned structures are used in the process. It comes after mechanical practice. (Comparatives and superlatives).Using prompts for practice:Using picture prompts, using mimes or gestures as prompts, using information sheet as prompts, using key phrases or key words as prompts, using chained phrases forstory telling, using created situations.What does knowing a word involve:Denotative meaning; connotative meaning; chunk/collocations; synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms; receptive and productive vocabulary.Denotative meaning of a word or a lexical item refers to those words that we use to label things as regards real objects, such as a name or a sign, etc. in the physical world. Primary meaning of a word.connotative meaning of a word refers to the attitudes or emotions of a language user in choosinga word and the influence of these on the listener or reader’s interpretation of the word.Collocations refer to words that co-occur with high frequency and have been accepted as ways for theuse of words. For instance, see, look at, watch.Hyponyms refer to words which can be grounded together under the same superordinate concept.Receptive/passive vocabulary refers to words that oneis able to recognize and comprehend in reading or listening but unable to use automatically in speakingor writing. Those words that one is not only able to recognize but also able to use in speech and writingare considered as one’s productive/active vocabulary.Way of presenting vocabulary: 1)provide a visual or physical demonstration whenever possible2)provide a verbal context to demonstrate meaning3)use synonyms or antonyms to explain meaning4)use lexical sets or by ponyms to show relation of words and meanings.5)translate and examplify 6)use word formation.etcWays of consolidating vocabulary: labeling; spot the difference; describe and draw; play a game; usewords series; word bingo; word association; finding synonyms and antonyms; categories; using wordnet-work; using the internet resources for more ideas.Developing vocabulary learning strategies:review regularly, guess meaning from context, organize vocabulary effectively, use a dictionary, and manage strategy use.Characteristics of the listening process:spontaneity,context,visual clues,listener’s response,speaker’s adjustment.Principles and models for teaching listening: focus on process, combine listening with other skills (listening can be practice with not-taking, and answers, role plays, retelling, interviewing, discussions, or a writing task), focus on the comprehension of meaning, grade difficulty level appropriately, principles for selecting and using listening activities.Models of listening process:Bottom-up model.Top-down model.lpre-listening—warming up; while-listening---listening comprehension; post-listening---checking answers.Pre-listening activities:predicting,setting the scene,listening for the gist,listening for specific information,While-listening activity:no specific responses,listen and tick,listen and sequence,listen and act,listen and draw,listen and fill,listen and take notes,Post-listening activity:multiple-choice question,answering question,note-taking and gap-filling,dictogloss(four stages:preparation,dictation,reconstruction,analysis and correction.Four feature of spoken language:using Less complex syntax, taking short cuts, incomplete sentences,using devices such as fillers, hesitation device to give time to thinking before speaking,using fixed conventional phrase/chunks.Principles of teaching speaking:balancing accuracy-based with fluency-based practice,contextualising practice,personalising practice,building up confidence,maximising meaningful interaction,helping students develop speaking strategies,making the best use of classroom learning environment to provide sufficient language input and practice for the studentsDesigning speaking task:maximum foreign talk,even participation,high motivation,right language level, Types of speaking: pre-communicative activities—mechanical activities; communicative activities---meaningful activities.Controlled activities, semi-controlled activities, communicative activities:Information-gap activities; dialogues and role-plays; activities using pictures; problem-solving activities; change the story; human scrabblewo broad levels in the act of reading: 1. a recognition task of perceiving visual signals from the printed page through the eyes; 2. a cognitive task of interpreting the visual information.reading aloud and silent reading are two types of reading practice.Five principles for teaching reading: Accessible reading materials. Clear prepared tasks. 3. Developing students reading strategies.Enough guidance. Promoting the students reading ability.Three models for teaching reading: bottom-up model, top-down model and interactive model.The role of vocabulary in reading: sight vocabulary: words that one is able to recognize immediately are often referred to as sight vocabulary.Pre-reading activities: predicting, setting the scene, skimming, and scanning.While-reading stage:purpose of transition device, reading comprehension question( questions of literal comprehension Questions involving reorganization or reinterpretation Questions for inference (what is implied but not explicitly stated) questions for evaluation or appreciation (making judgment about what the writer is trying to do and how successful he/she is in achieving his/her purpose) Questions for personal response), understanding inference and making reference.Post-reading activities: Gap-filling, discussion, role play, retelling and writing.Writing for consolidating language, writing for communication, between writing for learning and writing for communication, imagination Main procedures of process writing include: creating a motivation to write, brainstorming, mapping, freewriting, outlining, drafting, editing, revising, proofreading and conferencing.A communicative approach to writing,A Process approach to writing 过程法.Target domain:the experience being described by the metaphor.Source domain:the means that we used in order to describe the experience,Icms in ontological realms:sign,reference,concept icms Anthropological study of linguistics.study of language in a sociocultural contex。