Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings andLanguage consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted ratherThe study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in’s point of view, i.e. how a’s point of view, i.e. how the The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds’s represented by atwo phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and’tTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of theThe affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the（07F）Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a newDerivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are addedA branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions inIn all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, inA theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form ofand or or. Such phenomenon is known as’s complement is included in the headthe elements, including a complementizer and a complement clausethe element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to’s subcategorization properties.(08F)Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which resultwh- word are called whwh phrase from its position in deepwh‘alpha‘is a cover term foe any 补充第十一章It is generally considered as constitued by the knowledge shared by the speakers The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance int state a fact or describe a state, ands intention and performed in saying The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or theMake your contribution as informative as required (for thecurrent purpose of Do not make your contribution more informative than isrequired.（09C）？orderly.(08F)A subfield of linguistics that study language change over a period ofNew words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting anWords may shift from one part of speech to grammar and apply it generally to lesson the burdon on memeory and reduce the number ofThe subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use It study the relation between language and society,between the uses of language and the(GENERAL LINGUISTICS)interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties butIt refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who theIt refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how’s usuallystages of formality,including intimate,s creole.The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-existThe total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning,showing可以互换like, as are used. Somethingfor toilet.’s called linguisticofficial language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition ofTraditional behaviourists view language as behaviour and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation andthat human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language developss acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how theA theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of’s stimulated at the rightword beyond its usual domain ofIt refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires(as a mediumacquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have’s native language into a’s competence in language,based on the’s present linguistic, informal learning or natural learning.):’s believed to be related to a’conscious goal-oriented and’sthe study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a typeit is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to haveinstend of Let’s have fish and chips.An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the23.module: It refers to a unit of processing that is relatively autonomous from other processing units.24.Minimal attachment:we prefer attaching new items into the phrase marker being constructed using the fewest syntactic nodes consistent with the rules of the language. (eg. Mike kissed Lucy and her sister…)te closure: wherever possible, we prefer to attach new items to the current constituent to reduce the burden on working memory during parsing.(E.g.: Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday. )26.cohort model: in word comprehension,words are analysed by hearers from beginning to end.27.Selectional restrictions--- a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning form part of the word-processing system28. Hierarchical Structure----Our representation od complex words is organized in terms ofhierarchical morphological structure.29.Levelt’s model of speech production:Four stages of production: conceptualizing----- > formulating---- >articulating---- > self-monitoring.(1) Conceptualizing: we must conceptualize what we wish to communicate.(2)Formulating: we formulate this thought into linguistic plan in the Formulator. It contains grammatical and phonological process and draws upon the lexicon.(3) articulating:the information is passed to the Articulator from Formulator which actually produces the utterance.(4) self-monitoring.:We monitor our speech, to assess whether it is what we intended to say and how we intended to say it.．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．1. Acculturation(同化过程）is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）; a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.3. affix:a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its mea ning in some way.4. agreement (concord)（一致）:a grammatical phenomenon in which the for m of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word whi ch is grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day. There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the tempor al structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant. E.g. /p/ in the word pit.8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible fri ction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.9. converstional implicature（会话含义）:meanings that are explicable in the l ight of converational maxims.municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appro priately in social situations.11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, pre positional phrase and clause.12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the f orm of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. E nglish has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but E nglish pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases i n Latin.13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.14.closed class（封闭词类）:a group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members.15.coinage（创新词）:the construction and addition of new words.16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can appear in a language.17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small numb er of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaning ful units.18.entailment（包含）;the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second) is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehende r assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers tha t the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and r einterpret the sentence.21.free variation;(自由变异)a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexploded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varit ation with the exploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection（屈折变化）:the morphological process by which affixes combine with words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or pluri ty.ernment（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammati cal linked with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb r equires that the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,t o him.nguage universal(语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not a ll, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For exa mple, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.27.microsociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of so ciety,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language i s used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.28.paradigmatic relation: (纵组合关系)The substitutional relation between a s et of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can be s ubstituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g,b, p,s,f are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit,so are Nature,Beau ty, Love, Honesty in the sentences:Nature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elem ents which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i, t are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sentence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “some tea has already been taken”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.31.prototype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category,e.g.for some English speakers “cabbage”(r ather than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.32.root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped froma complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.33.stem（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.34.taboo（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered inapp ropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words i n a sentence resulting from their meaning.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性)The linguistic universals are principles that e nable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without instruct ion in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universal Gra mmar.（这是今年复试面试时教授的问题。