The formation of neologisms
A. By word-formation B. By adding new meanings to existing words, such as dove and hawk C. By borrowing words from other languages D. By analogy in which a word derives from the form of another existing word, such as apolune and perilune coming from the words aphelion and perihelion (see p110)
But some obsolete words may be still used at the present time: a. obsolete words survived in some fixed phrases or idioms: such as many a little makes a michle (large amount) b. some obsolete words survive but different from its original meaning, such as trident, armour, albeit (all be it, though).
b. A word becomes less respectable because of euphemism: undertaker: from ‘an influential person in the 17th century England who undertook to procure particular legislation, especially to obtain supplies from House of Commons if the king would grant some concession” to ‘one whose business is to carry out arrangements for funerals’
Words with a commendatory meaning may become ones with a derogatory sense. a. A word falls into disrepute because of social pes and occupations
C. Elevation of meaning (Amelioration)
That is the acquisition by a word of good implication: success, minister, marshal, politician
D. Degradation of meaning (Deterioration)
Changes in word meaning
Neologisms are newly coined words or words that are given new meaning to suit new situation because of social, economic, political, cultural, scientific and technical changes in human society. Archaisms are also called obsolete words, which are not used now except for special purposes.
a. animal metaphors: an ass: a stupid foolish person a pig: a dirty, greedy person a mouse: especially a woman, who is quiet and easily afraid a goose: a silly person, especially female a cat: a nasty person
c. Some obsolete words remain in Modern English as purely historical terms, or in poetry and fiction, for example: 1. The boy is fair, of female favour ( looks, countenance,from Shakespeare: As You Like It) 2. “ I saw the potamus take wing Ascending from the damp savannas, And quiring angels round him sing The praise of God, in loud hosannas.” (quire: choir, T.S. Eliot: The Hippopotamus)
c. synesthetic metaphors: Synesthetic metaphors are metaphors used to refer to a direct association between the form and the meaning of language. warm or cold voice loud colors sweet sound or music piercing (acute) sound grave news stormy quarrel golden opportunity stony heart dirty night
The Sources of New Words
The rapid development of modern science and technology environment-friendly, lunar rover, instant coffee Political, economic, social and cultural changes hire purchase, supermarket, spokeswoman
Semantic Changes from the Literal Use of Words to Their Figurative Use
Metaphor（隐喻） Metonymy（换喻） Synecdoche(提喻） Euphemism(委婉语） Analogy(类比)
Metaphor
a. anthropomorphic metaphors: Many inanimate objects are compared to the parts of the human body, for example, eye the eye of a needle, the eye of a potato, the eye of an axe, the eye of a flower, the eye of a peacock’s tail, the eye of a dome, the eye of the hurricane, the eye of the revolution, the eye of the law, in one’s mind’s eye
B. Narrowing of meaning(Specification)
a. from general to specific: meat, wife, starve b. from abstract to concrete: gear, habit, manners c. from common nouns to proper nouns: the Mediterranean
Four Tendencies in Semantic Changes
A. Extension of meaning (Generalization) a. from specific to general: picture b. from proper nouns to common nouns: champagne c. from concrete to abstract: matter, thing d. from technical terms to general words: catalyst
1.
2. 3.
The reasons for the disappearance of words could be: the thing that the word denotes has disappeared the existence of synonyms the collision of two homonyms
an owl: a solemn person, wise-looking dullard a mule: a stupid or obstinate person an ape: a person who copies the behavior of others a monkey: a child who is full of annoying playfulness and tricks a parrot: a person who repeats, often without understanding, the words or action of another
a jackal: a person who does preparatory drudgery , etc. or who assists another’s immoral behavior a black sheep: a person regarded with disfavor or shame compared to others in a group a dark horse: a person whose abilities are hidden or unknown