一绪论1 Linguisitics:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.Forexample,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and“ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics:The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,socialvariation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The studyof language with reference toworkings of mind is calledpsycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study ofsounds that are used in linguisticcommunication is calledphonetics.2 Phonology: The study of howsounds are put together and usedin communication is calledphonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simplydefined as the speech sounds weuse when speaking a language.A phone is a phonetic unit orsegement. It does notnecessarily distinguish meaning;some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology isconcerned with the speechsounds which distinguishmeaning. The basic unit inphonology is called phoneme;itis a unit that is of distinctivevalue.5 allophone: The differentphones which can represent aphoneme in different phoneticenvironment are called theallophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution:These two allophones of thesame phoneme are said to be incompkenebtary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When twodifferent forms are identical inevery way except for one soundsegement which occurs in thesame place in the stings, the twowords are said to form aminimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllableof a word is stressed, it meansthat the syllable is prouncedwith great force than the otheror others.9 tones: Tones are pitchvariation, which are caused bythe different rates of vibration ofthe vocal cords. Pitch variationscan distinguish meaning justlike phoneme; therefore, thetone is a suprasegementalfeature.10 intonation: When pitch,stress and sound length are tiedto the sentence rather than theword in isolation, they arecollectively known as intonation.Intonation plays an importantrole in conveying meaning inalmost everylanguage,especially in alanguage like English三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is abranch of grammer whichstudies the internal structure ofwords and the rules by whichwords are formed.2 inflectional morphology:Inflectional morphology studiesthe inflections ofword-formation.3 derivational morphology:Derivational morphology is thestudy of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is thesmallest meaningful unit oflanguage.5 free morpheme: Freemorpheme are the morphemeswhich are independent units ofmeaning and can be used freelyall by themselces or incombination with othermorphemes.6 bound morpheme: Boundmorphemes are the morphemeswhich cannot be usedindependently but have to becombined with othermorphemes, either free or bound,to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen aspart of a word; it can neverstand by itself although it bearsclear,definite meaning; it mustbe combined with another rootor an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types:inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at thebeginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added tothe end of the stems; theymodify the meaning of theoriginal word and in many caseschange its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixesare added to an existing form tocreat a word.Derivation can beviewed as the adding of affixesto stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Likederivation, compounding isanother popular and importantway of forming new words inEnglish. Compounding can beviewed as the combination oftwo or sometimes more thantwo words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence:Comsky defines competence asthe ideal user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language,andperformance the actualrealization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is cal led Move а五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationshipbetween the linguistic elementand the non-linguistic world ofexperience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refersto the sameness or closesimilarity of meaning. Wordsthat are close in meaning arecalled synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers tothe fact that the same one wordmay have more than onemeaning.A word having morethan one meaning is called apolysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refersto the oppositeness of meaning.Words that are opposite inmeaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymyrefers to the phenomenon thatwords having differentmeanings have the sameform,i.e. different words areidentical in sound or spelling, orin both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refersto the sense relation between amore general, more inclusiveword and a more specific word.9 componential analysis :Componential analysis is a wayto analyze wprd meaning. It wasproposed by structuralsemanticists.10 grammatical meaning : Thegrammatical meaning of asentence refers to itsgrammaticality,i.e. itsgrammatical well-formedness.The grammaticality of asentenceis governed by the grammaticalrules of the language.11 semantic meaning : Thesemantic meaning of a sentenceis governed by rules calledselectional restrictions.12 predication : In semanticanalysis of a sentence, the basicunit is called predication. Thepredication is the abstraction ofthe meaning of a sentence.六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can bedefined as the study of howspeakers of a language usesentences to effect successfulcommunication.2 context: The notion of contextis essential to the pragmaticstudy of language. Generallyspeaking, it consists of theknowledge that is shared by thespeaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utteranceis based on sentence meaning; itis realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a realsituation of communication, orsimply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionaryact is the act of utterancewords,phrases,clauses. It is theact of conveying literal meaningby means of syntax, lexion andphonology.5 illocutionary act: Anillocutionary act is the actexpressing the speaker’sintention; It is the act performedin saying something.6 perlocutionary act: Aillocutionary act is the actperformed by or resulting fromsaying something: it is theconsequence of, or the changebrought about by the utterance;it is the act performed by sayingsomething.七历史语言学1 historical linguistics:Historical linguistics is thesubfield of linguistics thatstudies language change.2 apocope: Anotherwell-documented sound loss isthe deletion of a word-finalvowel segement, a phenomenoncalled apocope.3 epenthesis: A change thatinvolves the insertion of aconsonant or vowel sound to themiddle of a word is known asepenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as aresult of sound movement isknown as metathesis.5 compounding: Compoundingis a process of combining two ormore words into one lexicalunit.6 derivation: Derivation refersto the process by which newwords are formed by theaddition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is aprocess of forming a new wordby combining parts of otherwords.8 back-formation:Back-formation is a process bywhich new words are formed bytaking away the suffix of anexisting word.9 semantic broadening:Semantic broadening refers tothe process in which themeaning of a word becomesgeneral or inclusive than itshistorically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personaldialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: Thestandard language is asuperposed, socially prestigiousdialect of language. It is thelanguage employed by thegovernment and the judiciarysystem,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language:Language varieties other thanthe standard are callednonstandard, or vernacular,languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua francais a variety of language thatserves as a medium ofcommunication among groupsof people for diverse linguisticbackgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety oflanguage that is generally usedby native speakers of otherlanguages as a medium ofcommunication.10 Creole: A Creole language isoriginally a pidgin that hasbecome established as a nativelanguage in some speechcommunication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usuallydescribes a situation in whichtwo very different varieties oflanguage co-exist in a speechcommunication, each with adistinct range of purely socialfunction and appropriate forcertain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualismrefers to a linguistic situation inwhich two standard languagesare used either by an individualor by a group of speakers, suchas the inhabitants of a particularregion or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethniclanguage variety is a socialdialect of a language ,oftencutting across regionaldifferences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, orsociolects, are varieties oflanguage used by peoplebelonging to particular socialclasses.15 register: Registers arelanguage varieties which areappropriate for use in particularspeech situations, in contrast tolanguage varieties that areassociated with the social orregional grouping of theircustomary users. For that reason,registers are also known assituational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal useof language that consists ofexpressive but nonstandardvocabulary, typically ofarbitrary, flashy and oftenephemeral coinage and figure ofspeech characterized byspontaneity and sometimes byraciness.17 tabo A linguistic taboo refersto a word or expression that isprohibited by the “polite”society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemismcomes from the Greek wordeuphemismos, meaning “tospeak with good words”. Aeuphemism, then ,is mild,indirect or less offensive wordor expression substitute whenthe speaker or writer fears moredirect wording might be harsh,unpleasantly direct, oroffensive.九心理语言学1psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language inrelation to the mind. As thesuggests, psycholinguistics isviewed as the intersection ofpsychology and linguistics,drawing equally upon thelanguage we acquire, produceand comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The mostimportant part of the brain is theoutside surface of the brain,called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: Thelocalization of cognitive ofcognitive and percpetualfunctions in a particularhemisphere of the brain is calledlateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: Intheir research of brainlateralization, psycholinguisticsare particulary interested inlinguistic lateralization, which isthe brain’s neurologicalspecialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence insupport of lateralization forlanguage in the left hemispherecomes from researches indichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuliheard in the left ear are reportedless accurately than those heardin the right car. Thisphenomenon is knowas the rightear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: Thecritical period hypothesis refersto a period in one’s lifeextending from about age two topuberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higherlevels of thinking are dependenton language. That is, languagedetermines thought, hence thestrong notion of linguisticdeterminism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorfalso believed that speakers ofdifferent language perceive andexperience the world differently,that is, relative to their linguisticbackground, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: Whenlanguage and thought areidentical or closely parallel toeach other, we may regardthought as “subvocal speech” oflinguistic relativism.。