CHAPUTER11 Definition of language<1>human speech; the ability to communicate by this means; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for expression of such a system<2>any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs, or animal sounds; a special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rules, etc. used for the transmission of information, as ina computer; …2 Design feature of languageArbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacementArbitrariness: arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, arbitrariness at syntactic level, arbitrariness and conventionDuality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, event and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.3 Functions of languageInformative, interpersonal function, performative, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual function.4 Definition of linguisticsLinguistic is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language ,linguistic is a rich and exciting field.5 Main branches of linguisticsPhonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics,(填空了解大意即可)6 Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances in language acquisition for example.7 Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.8 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveThe first is a prescriptive a command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.9 synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Saussure’s diachronic linguistics is the study of language th rough the course of its history.10 Competence and performanceA language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter21 The difference between phonetics语音学and phonology音系学The former studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. The latter is the study of the sound patterns an sound system of languages. It aim to “discover the principle that govern the way sounds are org that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, andexplain the variations that occur.”2 What is consonant辅音?Consonants are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible frict ion.”3 what is coarticulation协同发音?When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, this process is called coarticulation.4 what is phoneme音位?Phoneme refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast” the existence of a minimal pair automatically grant phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.5 what are minimal pairsMinimal pairs are pairs of words that except for one phenomic difference sound alike. The one phenome difference can make a significant difference in meaning between two words.6 what is allphone音位变体?To bring out the “phonetic” difference, an aspirated sound is transcribed with a rise after the sound, such variants of a phoneme are called allphone.7 what is assimilation同化现象?A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.8 what is suprasegmentals超音段特征?Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are syllable, stress tone, and intonation.Chapter31 Definition of morpheme语素?Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.2 free morpheme: those that may occur alone , that is, those that may make up words by themselves, are free morpheme.Bound morpheme: those that cannot occur alone and must appear at least with another morpheme are called bound morpheme.Chapter41 The three branches of syntactic句法?Positional relations; relations of substitutability; relations of co-occurrence.2 what is IC analysis?To dismantle a grammatical construction in the three nodes of tree is called immediate constituent analysis.3 category范畴: The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, and we are talking about the grammatical categories in the second sense. Agreement一致关系: May be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another, shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category.Conjoining连接: Refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another Embedding嵌入: Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.Chapter51 what is the referential theory指称论?The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.2 hyponymy上下义关系：Relationship of inclusion is relationship between the specific and the general meanings of the words. The former included the latter, e. g.” sheep” is included in “animal” the former is subordinate, the latter is superordinate.3 what is componential analysis成分分析法?The conceptual meaning can be broken down into its minimal distinctive components which are known as semantic features. Such analysis is called componential analysis.Chapter61 what is cognition认知?The process involved in knowing, or the act of knowing, which in its completeness includes perception and judgment. Cognition includes all processes of consciousness by which knowledge is accumulated, such as perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning. Put differently, cognition is an experience of knowing that can be distinguished from an experience of feeling or willing. It is one of the only words that refers to the brain as well as to the mind.2 what is psycholinguistics and its six subject of research?Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; t usually studies he psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.The six subject：acquisition习得; comprehension理解; production产生; disorders障碍; language and thought语言和思维; neurocognition神经认知3 what is cognitive linguistics认知语言学?Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language, which is based on human experiences of the word and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world.4 what is construal识解?Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways trough specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc 5 categorization范畴化and its three levels?Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.Three level: basic level基本层次范畴; superordinate level 上位范畴and subordinate level下属层次范畴Basic level: the categories at basic level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best.Superordinate level: superordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.Subordinate level: they have clearly identifiable gestalts and lots of individual specific features. At this level we perceive the difference between the members of the basic level categories.6 what is image schema意象图式?Mark Johnson proposes image schemas. He defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interaction and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. For example, a center-periphery schema-a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core: the structure of apple, an individual’s perceptual sphere…7 what is metaphor隐喻and its three categories.Metaphor involves comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. Three categories: ontological metaphor实体隐喻; structural metaphor结构隐喻and orientional metaphor 方位隐喻7 what is metonymy转喻?Metonymy, in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target with in the same domain.Chapter71 speech community语境: It is a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language.2 what is sapir-whorf hypothesis萨皮尔-沃尔夫假设?In linguistics, the sapir-whorf hypothesis postulates a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speak and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it, which is known as SWH.3 why do we need to teach culture in our own language classroom.A to get student familiar with cultural differences;B to help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the member of the target culture will;C to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.4 what is woman register女子英语文体?WR in language takes on the following features:A woman use more “fancy” color terms such as “mauve” and “beige”.B woman use less powerful curse words.C woman use more intensifiers such as “terrible” and“awful”.D woman use more tag questions.F woman use more statement questions like ”dinner will be ready at seven o’clock” with a rising intonation at the end.G woman’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men’s.5 what is sociolinguistic?Sociolinguistics, as a interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. In this discipline we have two important thing to think about: structural things and their use in sociocultural context.Chapter81 what is the speech act theory言语行为理论?This is the first major theory in the study of language in use, which organized with the oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin.2 what is performantives施为句?Some sentences cannot be said to be true or false, the uttering of these sentences is , or is a part of , the doing of man action . so they are called performatives.3 what is the theory of the locutionary act行事行为理论?Locutionary act发话行为: it is the basic linguistic action of voicing, a meaningful sequence of words. It is by means of locutionary acts that one succeeds in expressing information or doing other things with words.Illocutionary act 行事行为:可译为言外之意，无具体含义，需举例。