语言学重点Semantics1. Sense relation between sentences(简答、语料分析)A.X is synonymous with YX: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life.B.X is inconsistent with YX: John is married Y: John is a bachelorC.X entails YX: A boy had broken the window Y: A child had broken the window.D.X presuppose YX: John’s bike needs repairing Y: John has a bikeE.X is a contradictionX: John is neither alive nor deadF.X is semantically anomalousX: The table has had intentions Y: The golf kicked him.2. Sentence Meaning: Katz’s Semantic Theory(essay question)I. Structure of the theory and its aims{Grammatical classification}dictionary (semantic markers) Katz’s theory semant ic informationProjection rules [distinguishers]Universally applicable metalanguageⅡKatz’s dictionary--2 types of semantic information--(semantic markers)语义标记: which are the links binding the vocabulary together and are responsible for the lexical relations;--[distinguisher] 辨义成分: the word-specific semantic information that identifies the lexical items.Ⅲprojection rules--projection rules: to give rules showing how the meanings of lexical items build up into the meaning of phrases and phrases up to sentences.amalgamation process （合并）--PR use trees to structure the amalgamation of word meaning into phrase meaning and phrase meaning into sentence meaning.selection restrictions--AS the PR successively amalgamate readings, the selection restrictions will limit the final output.3. Referential theory (简答)①Linguistic symbols stand for things, the linguistic symbol(word) and the things they refer to are not related directly, the linguistic symbol and the things it stand for are arbitrary. Different linguistic symbols are used in different languages to refer to the same thing. For example, they are related via concept. For the speaker and listener to reach mutual understanding, they have to have the same concept of the target things.②There is a direct relation between linguistic symbol and the concept becauselinguistic symbol symbolizes concept, and linguistic symbol can express concept.③there is a direct relation between things and the concept because concepts are abstract mental representation of the things the physical or imaginary world.4 Proposition:def: the unit of meaning which constitutes the subject-matter of a statement in the form of simple declarative sentence.5. Propositional logic:def: the study of truth conditions for propositions, that is, how the truth of composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.6. truth value: def: a sentence’s being true or false is called its truth value7. truth value table(简答，给出子命题求复合命题，根据子命题真假判断复合命Pragmatics1.Pragmatics: the study of the use of the language in communication, particularlythe relationship between sentences and the contexts and the situations in which they are used.2. Speech Act Theory put forward by Austen and Searle(简答, 语料分析)2.1 Austin’s 3-part distinction of speech actSpeech actin utterance as a functional unit in communication. According Austin, an utterance performs 3 acts simultaneously---locutionary act: ~is the saying of something, which is meaningful and can be understood.---illocutionary act: ~ is the using the utterance to perform a function.---perlocutionary act: the results or effects that are produced by means of saying.2.2 Searle's 2-part distinction theoryAccording Searle, each utterance has two meanings:---propositional meaning: the basic literal meaning an utterance bears, which is conveyed by particular words and structure which an utterance contains.---illocutionary force: the intended effects the utterance or written text has on its listener or reader.--5 types of illocutionary forces（语料分析）1)assertives: sentences that commit the speaker to the truth of something.I guess he had got it.I think the film is moving.2)directive: try to get the listener to do somethingplease give me some advice.My shoes have worn out.3)commissive: committing the speaker to do something.May I help you with the case?4) Expressive: expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something.Congratulations!Thanks.5)declarative: bringing about immediate change in the existing state of affairs.Y ou are fired.Class is over.3.the Cooperative Principle(put forward by Paul Grice).Function/object---CP was theory is an attempt at explaining how a hearer gets from what is said to what is meant, that is, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning, conversational implicature, as called by Grice.---In conversational interaction, people work on the assumption that a certain set of rules is in operation unless they receive indications to the contrary. Grice calls this set of rules Cooperative Principle.---make your conversational contribution as such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.合作原则和合作准则的关系---According to this principle, we interpret lang. on the assumption that its sender is obeying CP. And CP is specified as 4 maxims called "cooperative maxims" to help establish what that conversational implicature might be. 遵循原则：quantity, quality, relation, manner4. characteristics of conversational implicatureA. calculabilitythe same words may convey very different implicatures in different circumstances. However, the implicature conveyed in a particular situation is not random. It is possible to spell out the steps a hearer goes though in order to calculate the intended implicature.B.cancellability/ defeasibility--an implicature can be cancelled, which allows the speaker to imply something and then deny that implicature.C.non-detachability--an implicature is attached to the semantic content of what’s said, not to the lin guistic form.--no matter how much you reword an utterance, the implicature remains.D.non-conventionalitythe same words can carry different implicatures on different occasions.4.flouting of maxims1) Quantity(adequate)A. make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange)B. do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) Quality(be true)Try to make your contribution one that is trueA.Do not say what you believe to be falseB.Do not say what for which your lack adequate evidence.3) RelationBe relevant4)Manner(be clear)Be perspicuousA.Avoid obscurity of expressionB.Avoid ambiguity.5.Relevance Theory put forward by Sperber & Wilson (essay question)the notion of relevance--the notion of relevance is defined by two notions: cognitive effects and processing effort.--cognitive effectscognitive effects result from an interaction of new and old information; cognitive effects can be achieved by:1)n ewly presented information may combine with an existing assumption to yield contextual implication. New information is relevant in any context in which it has context implicatures, and that the more contextual implicatures it has, the more relevant it will be.2) newly presented information may strengthen existing assumption. New information is relevant in any context in which it strengthens an existing assumption, and that the more assumption it strengthens, the more relevant it will be.3)newly presented information may contradict or eliminate an existing assumption. New information is relevant in any context in which it contradicts, and leads to the elimination of an existing assumption; the more assumption it eliminates, and the stronger they were, the more relevant it will be.a.Conclusion:new information derived from external stimuli (utterance, sound, sights), or from internal representation (thoughts memories) is relevant to an individual if it yields cognitive effects (combining with existing assumptions to yield contextual implication, contradicting or eliminating an existing assumption, or strengthening an existing assumption).--processing effortDef: processing effort is the mental effort needed to parse an utterance, decide what proposition it is intended to express, and work out its intended cognitive effects in that context.Conclusion: 关联和认知效果的关系relevance of an input to an individual1) other things being equal, the greater the cognitive effects, the greater the relevance.2) other things being equal, the smaller the processing effort to derivethose cognitive effects, the greater the relevance.--In processing information people try to balance cost and rewards—they automatically process each new piece of information in a context where it yields maximal cognitive effects for a minimal processing effort.6. Two principles of relevance--they govern cognition and communication1)cognitive principle of relevance（hearer）Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.2)communicative principle of relevance(speaker)Every act of ostensive（显示的）communication communicates a presumption of its own optimal （最佳的the best that is possible）relevance.Language and Cognition1.psycholinguistics:Def: the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language.2.internal lexicon:Def: The organization of word knowledge in permanent memory is called internal lexicon.3. cohort model--The cohort model in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics is a model of lexical retrieval first proposed by William Marslen-Wilson in the late 1980s.According to the model, when a person hears speech segments real-time, each speech segment "activates" every word in the lexicon that begins with that segment, and as more segments are added, more words are ruled out, until only one word is left that still matches the input.--spoken word recognition is realized in 3 stages:1)---generating a word initial cohort: a set of lexical candidates is activated on thebase of an acoustic-phonetic analysis of the input in a strict bottom -up fashion.This set of lexical candidates is called word initial cohort.---auditory lexical retrieval begins with the first one or two speech segments, or phonemes, reach the hearer's ear, at which time the mental lexicon activates every possible word that begins with that speech segment.2)the selection stage---As more speech segments enter the ear and stimulate more neurons, causing the competitors that no longer match the input to be "kicked out" or to decrease in activation.--items that are very similar to the signal remain strongly activated, while others will drop off, thus some of the initial candidates in the cohort will progressively eliminated.3)elimination takes place in one of the two ways:--the context of a spoken sentence narrows the initial cohort--The activated cohort will continue to monitor the incoming part of the word.---as more of the phonological information of the word comes in, the cohort narrows down progressively, These processes continue until an instant, called the recognition point,[5]at which only one word remains activated and all competitors have been kicked out. And the word is recognized.4)finally the recognized word is fit into the connected discourse.4. parsingDef: The first step in understanding a sentence. It is a procedure to assign elements of the sentence surface structure to linguistic categories. This procedure is called ~5. Processing steps in word access (Levelt, et al., 1999)1)Conceptualization: to decide the notion/ concept to express.2) To select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept: the speak first select alemma (a syntactic word unit). Several lemmas may be activated competitively at once. Only one lemma is selected as soon as its activation level exceeds the summed activation of all competitors. A checking mechanism ascertains that the selected lemma maps onto the intended concept.3) Morpho-phonological encoding: morphemes corresponding to the selected lemmaare retrieved. The phonological form of the word is generated. First these are decomposed individual segments [p, b, i] or groups of segments (eg., [st] )，which are later syllabified and assigned stress.4) Generation of a phonetic representation: specifying the articulatory gestures to becarried out and their timing.6. . Generation of sentences in spoken language productionGeneration of sentences involves roughly the following steps:Conceptual preparation—deciding what to say--A global planning is generated and then elaborated until a representation of lexical concepts (the message) is reached.Linguistic planning--linguistic planning started using the message as input. Linguistic planning is initiated as soon as the first few lexical concepts are selected, and the rest is prepared later, either during the speech or between parts of the utterance.Generating syntactic structureTwo distinct processes are involved:--functional planning processes: to assign grammatical functions (subject, verb, object, etc.) to lemmas (plan the grammatical functions that the lemmas plays). These processes rely largely on information from message level and syntactic properties of the retrieved lemmas.--positional encoding: to use the lemmas retrieved and their function to generate syntactic structures that capture the dependencies among constituents and their order. Building phonological forms--phonological segments and stress patterns for each word are retrieved from internal lexicon.Conceptual Metaphor Theory1.DomainDef: domain is the basic unit of cognitive organization in CMT2.W orking mechanism of metaphor—cross-domain mappingmapping (映射) from a source domain to a target domain.Metaphor is a fixed pattern of conceptual correspondences across the two conceptual domains, metaphor represents the systematic correspondence or entailments between the source domain and the target domain.。