第7章语言变化7.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Phonological Change音系变化2. Morphological and syntactic change形态和句法变化3. Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化本章考点：新词的增加(创新词，缩略词，紧缩法，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法)；词义的变化(意义扩大，意义缩小，意义转换)。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of historical linguisticsII. Phonological ChangeIII. Morphological and syntactic change1. Addition of affixes2. Loss of affixes3. Chang of word order4. Chang in negation ruleIV. Lexical and semantic change1. Addition of new words(1) Coinage(2) Clipped words(3) Blending(4) Acronyms(5) Back-formation(6) Functional shift(7) Borrowing2. Loss of words3. Semantic Changes(1) Semantic broadening(2) Semantic Narrowing(3) Semantic shiftV. Some recent trends1. Moving towards greater informality2. The influence of American English3. The influence of science and technology(1) Space travel(2) Computer and internet language(3) EcologyVI. Causes of language changeI. Definition of historical linguistics（历史语言学的定义）Historical linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.历史语言学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究语言随着时间的变化而产生的变化与变化的原因。
II. Phonological Change（音系变化）Sound changes tend to be systematic; it is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of the English language.音系变化倾向于系统化；在整个英语语言的历史中，我们可能看到一个发音变化的规则模式。
III. Morphological and syntactic change（形态和句法变化）1. Addition of affixes（前缀的增加）In English many affixes are borrowed, e. g. the suffix –ment in French. Besides, some lexical forms became grammaticalized over time. In the case where two words are frequently adjacent, over time they can become fused to form a single unit. Fusion refers to the type o gammaticalization in which words develop into affixes.英语中很多词缀是借用的，比如来自于法语的-ment。
此外，还有一些词与形式会语法化。
如果两个词语形式很相近，那么它们最终会变成一种形式。
联合就是词语变成词缀的语法化形式。
2. Loss of affixes（词缀的消失）Some affixes simply fade out of use for no apparent reasons. Some loss van be explained via sound changes. Many of earlier case and gender markings are obliterated.有些词缀的消失并没有明显的原因。
一些则可以通过语音的变化来解释。
很多古英语中的格或性的标志已经消失。
3. Change of word order（词序的变化）Since case markings are lost during the Middle English period, fixedsubject-object-verb order became the means of grammatical relation marking.格标志的消失使主谓宾形式成为语法关系的主要形式。
4. Change in negation rule（否定规则的变化）As late as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries，one could merely add not at the end of an affirmative sentence to negate it, as in:I love thee not.He saw you not.In modern English, not must precede the main verb, and ado, marked for the proper tense, must be inserted:I love you. —l do not love youHe saw you—He did not see you.直到15世纪和16 世纪，人们还可以在一个肯定句句尾加一个not来否定它，如：I love thee not.He saw you not.在现代英语中，not必须处于主动词之前，而且还必须插入标记适当时态的do：I love you. — I do not love you.He saw you. — He did not see you.IV. Lexical and semantic change（词汇和语义变化）【重点，考点：区分各个词汇变化方式】1. Addition of new words（新词的增加）(1) Coinage/invention（创新词）A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e. g. Walkman, Kodak, Xerox, Ford.为达到某种目的可以直接创造新词。
(2) Clipped words（缩略词）Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e. g.缩略是指比较长的词或短语的缩写。
gym——gymnasiumexpo——expositionmemo——memorandumdisco——discotheque(3) Blending（紧缩法）A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e. g.紧缩词是指通过组合其他词的某些部分而构成的词。
smog——smoke+fogmotel——motor+hotelbrunch——breakfast+lunch(4) Acronyms（首字母缩略法）Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words. e. g.词首字母缩略词是指由几个词的首字母构成的词。
CBS—Columbia Broadcasting SystemISBN—International Standard Book NumberIT—information technology(5) Back-formation（逆构词法）New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. Such words are thus called back. Formation, e. g. to edit(derived from editor on the mistaken assumption that or was the agentive suffix); to hawk(derived from hawker).新词也可以通过"去掉"一个被认为是旧词的一部分的词缀而被创造出来。
这些词因而被称为逆构词。
如：to edit (从editor得出的一个错误的设想，认为"or"是一个施事后缀)；to hawk (由hawker 得出)。
(6) Functional shift（功能转换法）Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e. g., noun—verb: to knee, to bug, to tap e.。