-expression for X(addressee or referent) -expression for self -main verbs -general vocabulary level
What is Power?
1. The ability or capacity to do something or act in a particular way;
Similar to "ni"and "nin".
Address terms
Name: Roger Brown
FN: Roger
LN: Brown TLN: Mr Brown/Professor Brown
T
V
Their findings
Findings
• T forms of social intimacy or rather solidarity is used mainly among the lower classes. • Upper classes using T forms only when addressing the lower classes. • V forms were used by the upper classes among themselves to show respect, politeness. • V forms were used by the lower classes when addressing the upper classes to show a social distance these classes.
If the two sides who have the same identity called each other with T-T at first, suddenly switched to address each other with T-V , then during their relationship the social distance has undoubtedly formed.
expression for X (addressee or referent)
expression for self main verbs
general vocabulary level
The Expression for X (addressee or referent)
Using the names (personal names, role-based names)
Power and Solidarity
权势与等同
Outline
Introduction to power and solidarity
-definition -theory of power and solidarity -its manifestation
Linguistic signals for power and solidarity
The waiter is very busy．(Roger is a waiter) Mr. Brown is so devoted to his work． you, guys. Hey, you!
Using the pronouns
Ordinary common nouns
Roger is a very clever boy．
What is Solidarity?
• Solidarity is a characteristic of the relation between two people. • It is independent of power. • It determines positive rights expected. • High solidarity means social closeness, based on social similarity and amount of contact.
⑤ Would you mind helping me to open the
window?
An Example in Chinese
苏东坡与僧人 • 坐，茶 • 请坐，上茶 • 请上坐，上好茶
The general vocabulary level
• Eg：Are you going to eat rice and cassava now? Javanese speaker Are you going to eat rice and cassava now Apa/ napa/ menapa Kowe/sampejan/pandjenengan arep/adjeng/dade mangan/neda/dahare sega/sekul lan/kalijan laspe saiki/saniki/samenika
The Theory of Power and Solidarity
In 1960, Roger Brown & Albert Gilman published the 'classic' paper The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity. the typical example of T and V Tu: close subordinate-familiarity, informality Vous: distant superior-respect, politeness
Expression for Self
– In English: I, ME
– In Chinese: different words to refer to the speaker according to power and solidarity eg: 本人，X某，吾，自己，人家，老夫，在下 鄙人...... – In Japanese: わたし, あたし,わたくし,おれ,わ し,わらわ
Findings and New Trends
2. In the modern society, the equality between people is being attached much importance than before.T-T and V-V, which indicate the solidarity relations, replaced T-V gradually. In addition, on some occasions, the equivalent term T-T gradually replaced the polite form V-V.
Findings and New Trends
1. In the asymmetric relation, the use of V not only shows respect and politeness, but also shows the alienation and their social distance.
Findings and New Trends
3. The transformation from V -V to T-V and then TT is often decided by the party of power side, that is the superior.
Linguistic Signals for Power and Solidarity

Power in Our Life
high power
middle power
low power
What is Solidarity?
• It concerns the social distance between peoplehow much experience they have shared, how many social characteristics they share (religion, sex, age,region of origin, race, occupation, interests, etc), how far they are prepared to share intimacies, and other factors. ---R. A. Hudson
Main Verbs Showing Power and Solidarity
① Open the window!
② Open the window, please.
③ Can you help me to open the window?
④ Could you help me to open the window?
– A > B A is superior to B – A < B A is subordinate to B – A = B A is equal to B
What is Power in Sociolinguistics ?
• Power is a relationship between at least two persons, and it is nonreciprocal in the sense that both cannot have power in the same area of behaviour. ---R. Brown and A. Gilman
2. The capacity or ability to direct or influence the behaviour of others or the course of events;
3. Physical strength and force exerted by something or someone. ---Oxford Dictionary