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会话含义

会话含义彭飞语用学定义:Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning by virtue of, or dependent on, the use of language. The central topics of inquiry of pragmatics include implicature, presupposition, speech acts, and deixis.1 格赖斯的会话含义理论格赖斯非自然意义理论(a theory of meaning nn)(nn-non natural)S meaning nn p by “uttering” U to A if and only S intends:当且仅当(ⅰ)说话人S意图听话人A想到p,(ⅱ)说话人S意图听话人A识别其意图(ⅰ),(ⅲ)说话人S意图听话人A对其意图(ⅰ)的识别是听话人A想到p的首要原因,此时就认为“说话人S通过对听话人A发出话语U来表达一种非自然意义p”。

“非自然意义”也可叫做“说话人意义”(speaker meaning),实际上就是表达和意识意图(交际效果),也就是我们说的语用意义。

1.1 合作原则和会话准则(1)合作原则(cooperative principle):在参与交谈时,要根据场合和需求,使你说的话符合你所参与的交谈的公认目的或方向。

(2)会话准则(the maxins of conversation):①质的准则:话语真实。

(ⅰ)不说错误的话(ⅱ)不说缺乏证据的话②量的准则:(ⅰ)不要比交谈需要说的少(ⅱ)不要比交谈需要说的多③相关准则:所说的话要具有相关性。

④方式准则:清晰明白地表达。

(ⅰ)避免晦涩(ⅱ)避免歧义(ⅲ)简洁(ⅳ)有条理1.2 说话者和会话准则的关系(1)说话者遵守会话准则(2)说话者违背会话准则:如说谎(3)说话者选择不遵守某一准则(opt out of a maxim):“冲突”状况,遵循一条违背另一条(4)说话者故意违反或利用一条准则(flout or exploit a maxim)1.3 Conversational implicature O和Conversational implicature F(1)Conversational implicature O :直接遵守会话准则产生的会话含义。

①质:Tim在1989年发明了万维网。

+>说话者相信Tim在1989年发明了万维网,并有足够的证据证明他说的②量:John有六张信用卡。

+> John最多有六张信用卡。

③相关:John:现在几点?Mary:博物馆还没开门。

+> 现在的时间至少比博物馆开门要早。

④方式:John去麦当劳买了两个汉堡。

+> John先去了麦当劳,然后买了两个汉堡。

(2)Conversational implicature F :说话者故意违背会话准则产生的会话含义。

①质:乔姆斯基是一位伟大的社会语言学家。

+> 乔姆斯基根本不是社会语言学家。

②量:(ⅰ)War is war. +> (ⅱ)Terrible things always happen in war.that’s nature,and it’s no use lamentingthat particular tragedy.③相关:John:Susan can be such a cow sometimes! Mary:Oh,waht a lovely day! +>One shouldn’t speak ill of people behind their back.④方式:a.John smiled. b.The corners of John’s lips turned slightly upward. +>John did not exactly smile.·两者产生会话含义的前提是都遵循合作原则。

1.4 一般性会话含义和特殊性会话含义二者的区别主要在于是否需要特殊的语境和条件获得会话含义(1)一般性会话含义:Mos t of John’s friends believe in marriage. +>Not all of John’s friends believe in marriage.(2)特殊性会话含义:John: Where’s Peter? Mary: The light in his office is on. +> Peter is in his office.1.5 会话含义的特征(1)可取消性(defeasibility/cancellability):在某种语言或非语言情境下会话含义会消失。

出现以下不一致的情况会话含义会消失:(ⅰ)语义内涵(semantic entailments)His wife is often complaining. +> His wife is not always complaining.His wife is often , in fact always complaining.(ⅱ)背景假设(background assumptions)John and Mary bought an apartment near the Louvre in Paris. +>John and Mary bought an apartment near the Louvre in Paris together, not one each.The Americans and the Russians tested an atom bomb in 1962. +>The Americans and the Russians tested an atom bomb in 1962 together, not one each.(ⅲ)语境(contexts)John:This CD is eight euros, and I haven’t got any money on me.Mary:Don’t worry,I’ve got eight euros. ~+>Mary has got only eight euros.(ⅳ)优先会话含义(priority conversational implicatures)(2)不可分离性(non-detachability):会话含义依附于语义内容而非语言形式,因此,不可能通过同义词的替换把会话含义从话语中分离出去。

(方式准则例外)The film almost/nearly won/came close to winning an Oscar. +> The film did not win an Oscar. (3)可推导性(calculability):可根据合作原则和会话准则推导出会话含义。

(4)非规约性(non-conventionality):会话含义不属于字面意义,它建立在话语编码基础上,但它与句子或命题没有关系,与说话人和言语有关,话语命题的真假不影响会话含义。

(5)可明述性(reinforceability):会话含义可以清晰表达,没有太多冗余。

The soup is warm +> The soup is not hot 比较:Tthe soup is warm, but not hot.(6)普遍性(universality):会话含义具有普遍性,它并非任意的(arbitrary)。

不同的语言,同样的表达会产生同样的会话含义。

2 规约含义2.1 规约含义的内涵规约含义与真值条件无关,不能演绎推导;其特征只与特殊的词汇项目或语言结构有关。

词汇项目举例如下:(1)p therefore q +>> q follows pHe is Chinese;he therefore knows how to use chopsticks.(2)p but q +>> p contrasts with qJohn is poor but he is honest.(3)Even p +>> contrary to expectationEven his wife didn’t think that Joh n would win the by-election.(4)p moreover q +>> q is in addition to pXiaoming can read German. Moreover, he can write poems in the language.(5)p so q +>> p provides an explanation for qMary is taking Chinese cookery lessons. So her husband has bought her a wok..这些词汇引发了规约含义,英语中还有:actually, also, anyway, barely, besides, however, manage to, on the other hand, only, still, though, too, yet2.2 规约含义的特征(与会话含义比较)(1)规约含义与会话含义的相同之处①两者都与真值条件无关;②两者都与“说话人”和“话语”有关,与“命题”和“句子”无关。

(2)规约含义与会话含义的不同之处①规约含义不遵循合作原则和会话准则,只与特定词汇有关,是意义的任意部分,需特别习得;会话含义遵循合作原则和会话准则,它们不是任意的。

②规约含义不能通过任何自然程序推导,它们是规定的(they must be stipulated);会话含义是通过语用原则、上下文、背景假设推导出来的。

③规约含义不可取消;会话含义可以取消。

④规约含义可分离,因为它们建立在具体的语言形式上;会话含义不可分离(除了方式准则外),因为它们只与语义内容相关,与语言形式没有关系。

⑤规约含义不具有普遍性;会话含义具有普遍性。

3 总结。

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