第一章A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic functionWord ，Vocabulary的关系All the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary.The relationship between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary and conventional, and there is no logical relationship between sound and meaning.Word-form and meaning: arbitrary and conventional.What is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and act ual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stageOld English3)With the development of the language, more and more diff erences occur between the two.What is the classification of words? How to classify words i n linguistics?Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.According to Stuart Robertson the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,youWhat are the characteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character 2) Stability 3) Productivity 4) Polyse my 5) CollocabilityNone basic vocabulary1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra 专业术语2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 行话3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 俚语4) Argot e.g. persuader 黑话，隐语5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE = blood)方言6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will) 古语词7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms ) 新语词第二章语系Three Phases of the Historical DevelopmentThe first peoples who inhabited the land were Celts.The second language known in English was Latin of the Roman Legions.Celtic对英语的影响小，主要是place，river name。

The Indo-European is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.‘Indo-European’两大分支：Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albani anWestern set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.Balto-Slavic///Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgaria n ,Slovenian and Russian.In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived fro m Hellenic.Celtic：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, BretonThe Italic family The five Romance languages, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Romanian 。

The Germanic family consists of the four Northern Europea n Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,wh ich are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then t here is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English.With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words came int o the English language.In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany.Old English450-1150 middle eng1150-1500modern1500 up to nowAnglo-Saxon as Old English.Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence onEnglish was mainly Germanic.Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance . ancient Greek and Roman classics.Modern English：Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern EnglishOld English was a highly inflected language. It was a synthetic language（综合性语言）.（Modern English is an analytic language）Modern English period 外来语The Latin words swarmed into English in early modernThe richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises fro m (Colonization )Three main sources of new words :1)The rapid development of modern science and technology2)Social, economic and political changes;3)The influence of other cultures and languageModes of Vocabulary Development1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 答案：Modern English period 三语鼎立French, Latin, English in Middle English period文艺复兴时期，Greek , Roman culture主要是Latin, Greek某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?答案：Modern EnglishBorrow最多从Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian第三章The smallest unit in the English language (morphemes)The minimal free form in the English language (word)In the plural form changing, some of the words will take inter nal vowel change , this internal vowel change is allomorph s A morpheme attached to a base, stem or root (affix) Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language，’the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs : The alternative morphs that are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Morph（形素）—— the phonetic语言学的or orthographic 拼写法的segments部分which realize morfhemes. Allomorph (词素变体）--- refers to the variants of the same morpheme.types of morphemes：Free and boundFree morphemes : independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.free morphemes are free roots.bound morphemes: cannot occur as separate words are bound.1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affixaffix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus know n as inflectional morphemes.The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.Derivational affixes:derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new wordscan be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.stem : a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff.2) 可以加inflectional affixes 的，不改变意思。