大家请注意：中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。

其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。

区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。

第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary 1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound. 3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns） a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language. b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500 d）. Borrowing of foreign language 4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history. The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点 1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary. 1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomena most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj. 2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow. e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now 3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes. e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer 4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous. e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it . e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold Non-basic vocabulary ——(例子) 1. terminology – technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine photoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus 2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions. Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid 3.slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasions dough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays， Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage. 4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups can-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population. 5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialect beauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog 6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech. 7.neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions. Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences. a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous. Functional words are in a small number. b. Content words are growing. Functional words remain stable. c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words. 3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000 What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are 1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ） 2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes. 1.Denizen s – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language. e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork　cup from cuppa（L） 2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spelling e.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo 3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language. 1）. Word translated according to the meaning e.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L） black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sound e.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ） lama from lama（Tib）　ketchup tea 4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another language e.g. stupid old dump　new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky 第二章The Development of the English 1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India） It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、　Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征） 1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 words The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.　The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech. 特点：highly inflected language///　complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，French Until 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English. By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas. Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today. As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English. 特点：fewer inflections leveled ending 3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700） late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek . The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world. After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements. More words are created by means of word-formation. thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements. more words are created by means of word-formation. in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language. science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% . mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use. 特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因 1).The rapid development of modern science and technology　2).Social: economic and political changes　3).The influence of other cultures and languages 4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词） 1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.） 2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need. 3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times） 4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete） French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4% 第三章Word Formation *1. Morpheme(词素) —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.） *2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs. 3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs. 4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphsare allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context， e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/. 5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. 6.Bound Morphemes—— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words. 7.Bound root —— A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of “say or speak”as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning “tell beforehand”。