第11章语言学与语言教学1. Why should language teachers learn some knowledge of linguistics?Key: Some knowledge of linguistics will not only help language teachers to better understand the nature of language, but also helps them better understand how to teach language. Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Language teachers do need a theory (maybe theories) of language in order to teach language effectively, and they need to know at least how the language they teach works. To discover the real language and to obtain some understanding of it, language teachers may well turn to linguistics. Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. Therefore, linguistics has always played an important role in the studies of language acquisition and learning.2. What is FOCUS ON FORM?Key: The key point in focus on form is that although language learning should generally be meanling-focused and communication oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features by the teacher and/or one ormore students triggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production.3. What is the INPUT HYPOTHESIS?Key: According to Krashen’s INPUT HYPOTHESIS (1985), learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Krashen brought forward the concept of “i + 1”principle, i. e. the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither he so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all.4. What is INTERLANGUAGE? Can you give some examples of interlanguage? Key: The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as INTERLANGUAGE. Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. It is imperfect compared with the target language, but it is not mere translation from the learner’s native language. However, interlanguage should not really he seen as a bridging language between the target language and native language. Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native- like level. Therefore, “inter”actually means between the beginningstage and the final stage. There are many examples of interlanguage, such as I no have a book. I like read books.5. What is the discourse-based view of language teaching?Key: The essential point of the discourse-based view of language takes into account the fact that linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. These patterns of language extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching (McCarthy and Carter, 1994: 1). The discourse-based view of language focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates. Accordingly, the discourse-based view of language teaching aims at developing discourse competence.6. What are real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks? Can you give some examples? Key: A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work. For example, students may be asked to work in groups, discuss how the sports facilities in their school can be improved (e. g., buy some new facilities) and make some suggestions to the headmaster. This is a real-world task because there are things like this in the real world. Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life. For example, the students work in pairs. Each is given a picture. Most of the things in the pictures are the same, but there are some differences. The students are asked to describe their picture toeach other and identify the differences. In this task, the students use language to do something, that is, to identify differences between two pictures. In doing this task, they focus on meaning rather than form, because they are not asked to practise particular linguistic items. We say this is a pedagogical task rather than a real-world task because in daily life we do not normally do things like this. It is pedagogical in the sense that it is designed to help the students to learn or review certain language knowledge or skills. This does not mean, however, that real-world tasks do not have any pedagogical purposes.7. What are the most important tasks for a syllabus designer?Key: The process of syllabus design in foreign language teaching mainly includes selecting and grading what is to be taught. A process of selection must be undertaken since learning the whole system of a foreign language is neither possible nor necessary. Selection involves two sub processes: First, the restriction of the language to a particular dialect and register; and second, the selection from within the register of the items that are to be taught according to criteria such as frequency of occurrence, learnability and classroom needs. The whole process of selection must be applied at all levels of language, such as phonology, grammar, lexis, contexts (semantic and cultural,). After a list of language items have been selected, the next process is to put them into the most appropriate order for practical teaching purposes. This process is often referred to as grading or sequencing.8. What is a structural syllabus?Key: Influenced by structuralist linguistics, tile structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures. The vocabulary and grammatical rules included in the teaching materials are carefully ordered according to factors such as frequency, complexity and usefulness. The syllabus input is selected and graded according to grammatical notions of simplicity and complexity. These syllabuses introduce one item at a time and require mastery of that item before moving on to the next.9. The structural syllabus is often criticised. Do you think it has some merits as well? Key: The major drawback of such a syllabus is that it concentrates only on the grammatical forms and the meaning of individual words, whereas the meaning of the whole sentence is thought to be self-evident, whatever its context may be. Students are not taught how to use these sentences appropriately in real situations. As a result, students trained by a structural syllabus often prove to be communicatively incompetent. However, the structural syllabus also have some merits. For example, many students feel comfortable when learning a language through learning its grammar. In many contexts, both teachers and students expect to see grammar in the syllabus and teaching materials. Besides, the system of grammar provides a convenient guidance for syllabus design.10. What are the important features of a task as defined in a task-based syllabus? Key: (1) A task should have a clear purpose.(2) A task should have some degree of resemblance to real-world events.(3) A task should involve information seeking, processing and conveying.(4) A task should involve the students in some modes of doing things.(5) A task should involve the meaning-focused use of language.(6) A task should end with a tangible product.11. What are non-language outcomes?Key: (1) Affect cultivation, such as confidence, motivation, interest(2) Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc.(3) Cultural understanding12. What is Contrastive Analysis?Key: Contrastive Analysis a way of comparing languages (e. g., L1 and L2) in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. The goal of contrastive analysis is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what areas will be difficult to learn. Contrastive Analysis was associated in its early days with behaviourism and structuralism.13. What are the differences between errors and mistakes? Can you identify the。