语言学导论课外补充练习（1）language1.State the nature of language briefly with examples.2.Why is it said that the language system is unique to human beings?3.What are the characteristics of human language?4.What are the social functions of language?5.Do animals other than humans have their own languages?6.Exemplify how animals communicate with each other.7.Can language be viewed only as a system of communication? Why not?8.How did language come into being? What is the relationship between the originof language and the origin of human beings?9.Rewrite each of the following lists of words into natural order.（1）Five /the /fresh /potatoes（2）Pretty /American /girls /the two（3）Airlines /brand /France-made /new /the two（4）Fashions /Chinese /the /latest /three（5）Beginning /hardworking /two /the /workers10.Fill in the blanks with the proper words.（1）_______ function means language can be used to “do” things.（2）_______ function means the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.（3）Most imperative sentences are associated with _______ function.（4）The sentence “What’s it like?” shows ______ function.（5）Greetings shows _______ function.（6）“We are most grateful for this.” shows______ function.（7）Propaganda shows ________ function.（8）________ refers to contexts removed from the immediate of the speaker.（9）For________, reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.（10）Halliday’s metafunctions include ________, ___________, _____________.（11）Linguistics should include at least five parameters:_________ __________ ___________ ____________ _________________..11.Say the following are true or false. If it is false correct it（1）Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animals communication system.（2）There is not a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the actual happenings.（3）The theories discussed in the textbook about the origins of language are not at most a speculation.（4）The definition,“ Language is a tool for human communication.” has no problem.（5）The definition, “language is a set of rules”, tells nothing about its functions.（6）Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.（7）Chomsky’s definition about language is the same as Sapir’s.语言学课外单元补充习题答案Language（Exercise 1）1. State the nature of language briefly with examples.Answer: modern linguists have proposed various definitions of language such as: Language is “a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.” (Sapir, 1921) Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.” (Hall, 1968) Language is “a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.” (Chomsky, 1957)“语言是人跟人互通信息，用发音器官发出来的，成系统的行为的方式。

”（赵元任）Each of these definitions has its own special emphasis. However, there is a generally accepted definition: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. The definition has captured main features of human language: (i) language is a system; (ii) language is arbitrary; (iii) language is vocal; (iv) language is human-specific; and (v) language is to communicate. (Students should illustrate these points more clearly)2. Why is it said that the language system is unique to human beings?That language is human specific means that language is different from the communication systems other forms of life have, such as bird songs and bee dances. (More about this point can be found in the illustration of the design features of language)3. What are the characteristics of human language?Human language is characterized by its design features, which refers to the defining properties of human language which distinguish it from animal communication system. American linguist Charles Hockett specified 13 features (some of them discussed in our textbook):1. Mode of communication: vocal-auditory;2. Rapid Fading: Message does not linger in time or space after production.3. Interchangeability: individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system.4. Feedback: users of a language can perceive what they are transmitting and can make corrections if they make errors.5. Specialization: the direct-energetic consequences of linguistic signals are usually biologically trivial; only the triggering effects are important.6. Semanticity: there are associative ties between signal elements and features in the world; in short, some linguistic forms have denotations.7. Arbitrariness: there is no logical connection between the form of the signal and its meaning.8. Discreteness: messages in the system are made up of smaller, repeatable parts;the sounds of language (or cheremes of a sign) are perceived categorically, not continuously.9. Displacement: linguistic messages may refer to things remote in time and space, or both, from the site of the communication.10. Productivity: users can create and understand completely novel messages. 1) Ina language, new messages are freely coined by blending, analogizing from, or transforming old ones. This says that every language has grammatical patterning. 2) In a language, either new or old elements are freely assigned new semantic loads by circumstances and context. This says that in every language new idioms constantly come into existence.11. Cultural transmission: the conventions of a language are learned by interacting with more experienced users.12. Duality (of Patterning): a large number of meaningful elements are made up ofa conveniently small number of meaningless but message-differentiating elements.13. Prevarication: linguistic messages can be false, deceptive, or meaningless.14. Reflexiveness: In a language, one can communicate about communication.15. Learnability: A speaker of a language can learn another language.(Charles Hockett, 1966, "The Problem of Universals in Language".)Among them, arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement are the crucial and central properties of language.4. What are the social functions of language?Language serves various social functions as follows:1) phatic: language is used for establishing an atmosphere for further communication or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information, such as greetings, farewells and comments on the weather.2) directive: language is used to get the hearer to do something.3) informative: language is the instrument of thought, is to give information or record the facts.4) interrogative: language is used to get information from others.5) expressive: language is used to convey the user’s feelings or attitudes.6) evocative: language is used to create certain feelings in the hearer.7) performative: language can be used to perform certain acts.(Students are required to list other functions of language and give some examples) 5. Do animals other than humans have their own languages?Animals have their own communication systems which may be different from human languages. For instance, a bee can tell other bees the location, direction, distance or quality of the food source by performing a dance on a wall of the hive. An ant can convey information to its partners through its feelers.6. Exemplify how animals communicate with each other.See the answer to the question 5 (list more examples about other animals).7. Can language be viewed only as a system of communication? Why not?The statement that language is a system of communication does not clarify the nature of language. Language is a complicated notion. A proper definition should be based on the structures, features and functions of language. Moreover, if language isdefined merely as a system of communication, then language is not unique to humans. (More on this see the answers above.)8. How did language come into being? What is the relationship between the origin of language and the origin of human beings?There are many theories about the origin of language. Four theories are introduced in the textbook1(PP. 9-19). You can find more information about this problem on the internet, or in the library.The relationship between the origin of language and the origin of human beings is an open question. Students can discuss it according to your understanding.9. Rewrite each of the following lists of words into natural order.Five /the /fresh /potatoes: The five fresh potatoesPretty /American /girls /the two: The two pretty American girlsAirlines /brand /France-made /new /the two: The two new brand France-made airlinesFashions /Chinese /the /latest /three: The latest three Chinese fashionsBeginning /hardworking /two /the /workers: The two beginning hardworking workers10. Fill in the blanks with the proper words.（1）Performative function means language can be used to “do” things.（2）Emotive/expressive function means the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.（3）Most imperative sentences are associated with directive function.（4）The sentence “What’s it like?” shows interrogative function.（5）Greetings shows phatic function.（6）“We are most grateful for this.” shows expressive function.（7）Propaganda shows evocative function.（8）Displacement refers to contexts removed from the immediate of the speaker.（9）For Jakobson, reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.（10）Halliday’s metafunctions include Ideational, Interpersonal and Textual functions.（11）Linguistics should include at least five parameters:_________ __________ ___________ ____________ _________________.11. Say the following are true or false. If it is false correct it1) Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticatedthan any animals communication system. (T)2) There is not a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence ofclauses and the actual happenings. (F) The order of clauses are always matching the actual sequence of happenings.3) The theories discussed in the textbook about the origins of language are not atmost a speculation. (F) (more about this on P.10)4) The definition“Language is a tool for human communication.” has no 1 The textbook refers to Linguistics: A Course Book edited by Hu Zhuanglin, Beijing University Press, 2001.problem.(F) The definition just focuses on the function of language, which does not include the nature and features of language.5) The definition, “language is a set of rules”, tells nothing about its functions. (T)6) Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. (F) (See the answer to the question 1)7) Chomsky’s definition about language is the same as Sapir’s. (F) (See the answer to the question 1)。