第7章语言变化1. The vocabulary of English consists of thousands of borrowed words. Look up the following words in a dictionary which provides the etymologies (history) of words. In each case speculate as to how the particular word came to be borrowed from a particular language.a. sizeb. skillc. royald. ranche. robotf. potatog. astronauth. emeraldi. pagodaj. khakik. bulldozel. hoodlumKey: a. size (< old French)b. skill (< old Norse)c. royal (< old French < Latin)d. ranch (< Spanish < French)e. robot (< Czech < old Church Slavonic)f. potato (< Spanish < T aino)g. astronaut (< French)h. emerald (< Middle English & old French)i. pagoda (< Persian < Sanskirt)j. khaki (< Hindi < Persian)k. bulldoze (< bull (Botany Bay Slang) < old English)l. hoodlum (< German)2. The Encyclopedia Britannica Yearbook has usually published a new word list, which is, in the Britannica’s editor’s view, a list of those words that had entered the language during the year. Would you expect a yearbook to publish a “lost-word list” recording the words dropped from the language during the year? Defend your answer.Key: No. Words can be lost from a language. A reading of any Shakespeare’s works will quickly reveal that English has lost many words. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language: beseem, wot, gyve, wherefore. The loss of words, as the examples show, takes place gradually over the course of several generations. On the other hand, the arrival of a new word is quite obvious and often draws attention. Because the loss of the words is very slow, we cannot expect a yearbook to publish a “lost-word list”.3. Below is a passage from Shakespeare’s Hamlet,King: Where is Pelonius?Hamlet: In heaven, send thither to see. If your messenger find him not there, seek him i’ the other place yourself. But indeed, if you find him not withinthis month, you shall nose him as you go up the stairs into the lobby. (Act IV. scene iii)Study these lines and identify every difference in expression between Elizabethan and Modern English that is evident.Key: In modern English, these lines are more likely written as:King: Where is Pelonius?Hamlet: In heaven, send to see there. If your messenger can not find him there, you seek him at the other place yourself. But indeed, if you cannot find him within this month, you shall notice him as you go up the stairs into the lobby.4. Comment with examples on the followin g statement “Words and expressions will be forced into use in spite of all the exertions of all the writers in the world.”Key: I agree with this comment. When necessary, people will make use of available uses even if there are no writers’ efforts. For example, there are more and more words and expressions being introduced into language not by writers, such as laptop computer, hovercraft, bullet train, email, hacker and IBM (international big mouth, means one who acts like a gossip).5. Suppose you are outside a government office where doors still bear the notice, “This door must not be left in an open position.” Now try to explain the noticein simple and plain English.Key: “Please do not forget to close the door.”“The door must be kept close.”6. Give at least two examples showing the influence of American English on British English.Key: For many years, American English has been assaulting the British Isles with ever-increasing weight and persistence, through movies, newspapers, magazines, radio and television. Though “petrol”“autumn”“lift” and “pavement”have not surrendered to “gasoline”“fall”“elevator”and “sidewalk”, words which aptly fill a real need such as “teenager” and “commuter” have now become well established in British English, as in the following sentence: “At the same time, a number of teenagers climbed on to the dish and held a little party of their own.”Similar examples of American English influence can be seen in the increasing use of the following words or expressions in British English: to update (which does the work of “to bring up to date”)to host (which means “to be host at”)to check up (which slightly intensify the meaning of the simple verb “to check”)7. Find in any books, newspapers, or journals newly coined words in association with social and political needs, internet or computer language.Key: Cybernaut 网迷，沉迷于网络者SARS “非典”Golden week 黄金周Multimedia 多媒体的Eyephone 视像耳机E-mail 电子邮件8. With examples, give some plausible explanations for linguistic changes.Key: Linguistic changes are more gradual, particularly those in the phonological and syntactic system. Now, let’s list some reasons.For example, the rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: “bullet train”“fax”“laser printer”“eurostar”“hovercraft”“CD-ROM”“laptop computer”, etc.In addition, social and political changes and political needs have supplied the English vocabulary with great quantity of new words and expressions: “shuttle diplomacy”“mini-summit” “jungle war”“hot line”, etc.As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created. The following are some examples that can be used for both genders, especially in the United States.Former job title: chairman; foreman; policeman; fireman; jury foremanNew job title: chairperson; supervisor; police officer; fire fighter; jury foreperson第8章语言与社会1. How is language related to society?Key: (1) While language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “Good morning!”, “How is your family?”, “Nice day today, isn’t it?”(2) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker.(3) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and social environment of a society. For example, while there is only one word in English for “snow”, there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos to make distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather thanlinguistic.Key: As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communication functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore,。