一、填空Chapter 51. One difficulty in the study of Meaning is that the word “meaning” itself has different meanings. In their book The Meaning of Meaning written in 1923, C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards presented a “representative list of the main definitions which reputable students of meaning have favoured”.2. G.Leechin a more moderate tone recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics, first published in 1974.3. There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation.Chomsky’ of Syntactic Structure(1957) helped to ignite the cognitive revolution.5. The exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach and the conceptural approach.6. The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.7.From a psychological point of view, we store a great deal of information about the properties of words in our mental lexicon心理词库, and retrieve this information when we understand language.8.Similarity and frequency both play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones.9.According to cohort model集群理论proposed by Marslen- wilson and Welsh in 1990.Chapter 7*四个代表人物10.Malinowski马林洛夫斯基claimed that” In its primitive uses, language functions as a link in concerted human activity…”11.Firth福斯,a leading figure in a linguistic tradition later known as the London School, tried to...In the end, he developed his own theory of Context of Situation. 12.M.A.K. Halliday韩礼德，whose contributions to sociolinguistics could be …. , and his linguistic model in the study of literature.13. Eugene Nida尤金奈达, a well-known linguist and traditional theorist, concerning the relationship between language and culture.14.Hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity.15. Cross-cultural communication跨文化交际中，there are five types of sub-culture 五种次文化形态we should be fully aware of: (1)ecological culture (2)linguistic culture (3)religious culture (4)material culture (5)social culture.[Nida,1964]16.During the whole 20th century, a great deal of efforts has been taken to treat the inquiry of linguistics as a monistic一元观or autonomous pursuit自治性of an independent science.Chapter 817. This kind of meaning is sometimes referred to as speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning, or contextual meaning.18.Semantic VS Pragmatics, the difference iscontext.二、名词解释Chapter 51.Semantics语义学is the stutyof the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular.2.The referential theory指称论: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential theory.3.Concept概念：There is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material word and can be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.4.The semantic triangle语义三角：The relation between a word and a thing it refers to is no direct. It is mediated by concept.5.Sense涵义:In contrast to reference, sense may be defined as t:he semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.6.Reference指称: Reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.7.Synonymy同义关系:Synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.8.gradable antonymy等级反义关系：Gradable antonymy is the sense relation between two antonymyswhich differ in terms of degree. There is an intermediate ground between the two. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. Something which is not “good” is not necessarily “bad”. If may Simply be “so-so” or “average”.positionality组合原则: Compositionality refers to the principles that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.10.Sentence meaning句子意义: This ia an area where word meaning and sentence structure come together.Chapter 611.Cognition认知：In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a view that the mind has internal mental states such as beliefs, desires and intentions. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.12.Cognitive linguistics认知语言学: is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.13.Psychological心理语言学：is the study of psychological aspects of language, it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.nguage acquisition语言习得：is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics.How does a child acquire the language skills (first language) and how are they extended to other languages (second/foreign language acquisition)?15.Connectionism in psychological连通主义: claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love.16.Construal识解: is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc.17.Categorization范畴化: is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.18. Metaphor隐喻：involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we used in order to describe the experience.Chapter 719.Anthropological orientation人类学转向: in the study of language was developed both in England and in North America. What characterized this new tradition was its study of language in a sociocultural context.20.Anthropological study of Linguistics人类语言学:aims to look at the relationships between language and culture in a speech community. For this reason, it can alternatively be called anthropological linguistics. More specifically, practitioners of the field want to know more about a given community by examining the correlation between the tradition of the community, beliefs, and social behavior of community members and their language used in different contextsof communication.21.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔—沃尔夫假说: is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the word. In a loose sense, this termcan be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.22.Linguistic determinism语言决定论：is a theory which believes that our language will influence or decide our way of looking at the world. In a loose sense, linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity, and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be regarded as synonyms.23.The strong version强势说of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.24.The weak version弱势说of this hypothesis, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language,culture,and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.25.Socilinguistics社会语言学: as an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationships between language and social. It examines issuesrelated to the subject from a more linguistic perspective and hence, is complementary with the Sociolinguistics of Society in terms of its coverage and concerns. Also it is a study of sociolinguistic issues at a macro level of discussion. Chapter 826.Pragmatics语用学: is the study of language in use or context.(对语境中语言运用的研究)27.conversational implicature会话含义：This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or言外之意in Chinese.28.Performatives施为句: is a sentence like ” I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth”, which does not describe thing and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. So they are called performatives. And verbs like name are called performative verbs.29.Constative s表述句：In contrast to performative, sentences like “I pour some liquid into the tube”is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentence of this type are known as constatives.30.Relevance theory关联理论：the theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.31.locutionary act 发话行为: is the ordinary act we perform when we speak, i.e. we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. For example, when somebody says “morning!”, we could say he produced a sound, word, or sentence—“morning!”32.Perlocutionary act取效行为,言后行为: it concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the header on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.三、问答题Chapter 51.G.Leech- 7 types of meaning:①Conceptual meaning概念意义: Logical, cognitive or denotative content.②Connotative meaning内涵意义: what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.③Social meaning社会意义: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.④Affective meaning感情意义: what is communicated of the feelings andattitudes of the speaker/writer.⑤Reflective meaning反映意义: what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义: what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of other word.⑦Thematic meaning主题意义: what is communicated bu the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.2. Sense和Reference的区别：①The distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties.②To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.3.Gradable antonymy等级反义关系:(1).First, as the name suggests, they are Gradable.(2)Second,antonymy of this kind are graded against different norms. There is no absolute criterion by which we may say something is good or bad, long or short, big or small. The criterion varies with the object described.(3)Third, one number of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.Chapter 64.Psychological in vestigates the six following subjects心理语言学被分为六个方向：(1)language acquisition(2)language comprehension(3)language production (4)language disorders(5)language and thought(6)and cognitive architecture of language.The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.Chapter 85.utterance 和sentence的区别：(1).utterance meaning: it is context-dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.(2)sentence meaning: it is the abstract context-dependent entity called semantic proposition.6.Characteristics of Implicature会话含义的特征：(1)calculability (2)cancelability(3)non-detachability (4)non-conventionality6.The cooperative principle合作原则的四准则:(1)quantity:A. make your contribution as informative as is requiredB.do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2)quality: try to make your contribution one that is true.A. do not say what you believe to be false.B.do not day that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3)relation: be relevant(4)manner: be perspicuousA. avoid obscurity of expressionB. avoid ambiguityC. be brief( avoid prolixity)D. be orderly。